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In the 1910s, tenant farmers in Oklahoma seethed with anger. Years of economic oppression and debt created a volatile working class ready for political and economic change. These farmers found support and a voice in both the Socialist Party and the regional Workers Class Union (WCU). In April 1917, the United States entered World War I despite years of proclaiming neutrality, and the following month, Congress passed the Selective Service Act to allow for conscription. Faced with the possibility of being drafted to fight a war in Europe, farmers of the WCU literally revolted. In August, four hundred members gathered in rural Seminole County near Saskawa with the intention of marching on Washington to prevent the draft and U.S participation in World War I. Local authorities and armed posses confronted the rebels, who largely surrendered without a fight. 150 were convicted and sent to jail. The failed rebellion ended the WCU and contributed to the demise of the Socialist Party in Oklahoma.

A photograph of several Green Corn rebels, published in the San Bernardino News (CA)

A photograph of several Green Corn rebels, published in the San Bernardino News (CA)

Rebels attempted, and failed, to dynamite the South Canadian River bridge near Sasakwa, OK

Rebels attempted, and failed, to dynamite the South Canadian River bridge near Sasakwa, OK

In the summer of 1917, the rural counties bordering the South Canadian River in central Oklahoma seethed with anger. Tired of economic exploitation, bewildered by the United States' recent entry into a European war, and hardened by the possibility of being drafted, hundreds of working-class tenant farmers banded together and determined to foment a Socialist revolution. The Green Corn Rebellion had begun.

Although U.S. entry into World War I was the spark that began the rebellion, its roots were economic. In the early 20th century, Oklahoma's white population (once Native-held Indian Territory) grew rapidly. Land speculation ran rife, and a small minority of wealthy landholders owned much of the land. Consistently poor crop prices worsened the local economy, and by 1917, nearly half of Oklahoma farmers were tenants, farming land they did not own. Reliant upon loans to pay for seed and supplies, exorbitant credit rates (often 200%, sometimes even 2,000%!) trapped tenant farmers in cycles of debt.

Denied economic independence, Oklahoma's tenant farmers increasingly embraced radical politics as a solution. Many tenant farmers embraced socialism. The Socialist Party, which enjoyed mild success as a nationwide third party in the early 20th century, found success in Oklahoma. With a unique agrarian and evangelical bent, Socialist ranks grew. In 1914, six Socialists were elected to the state legislature, 175 Socialists held local or county offices, and the Socialist candidate for governor--though defeated--garnered over 20% of the vote.

Besides socialism, tenant farmers also joined labor organizations. Though some farmers were interested in joining the International Workers of the World (IWW, or "Wobblies"), they were denied membership as they weren't wage-earners. Tenant farmers instead joined the Working Class Union (WCU). Based in nearby Van Buren, Arkansas, the WCU had thousands of members in the region.

The embrace of leftist politics and membership within the WCU provided an ideological and political framework within which tenant farmers could react to events. In 1917, the United States entered World War I. After years of stumping on neutrality (and largely reelected on that platform in 1916), President Wilson's decision to enter the war in April 1917 confused and angered many Americans. Anti-war sentiment quickly emerged, particularly among Socialists and other leftist groups who saw the conflict was one driven by profit and greed: a "rich man's war, poor man's fight." Especially contentious was the Selective Service Act, passed in May, which authorized the government to conscript American men through a national draft; eventually, some 24 million men were drafted for the war. Many Americans opposed the draft. As one Oklahoma man noted, "I am a Democrat and voted for Wilson because he kept us out of war. He has rewarded us by conscripting our sons."[4]

In Oklahoma, the WCU shifted its focus from economic support of tenant farmers to anti-conscription efforts. Poor farmers, already mired in debt and economic dependency, opposed being drafted to fight in a faraway war for reasons that weren't explicitly clear. The WCU worked across racial lines, bringing together white, Black, and Native-Americans in opposition to the draft. Central to the WCU's efforts was Henry "Rube" Munson, a local organizer who came to embrace active resistance to the draft.

In May, Munson began promoting the idea of a nationwide uprising to end the war; Munson claimed that dozens of organizations, including the IWW, would rise up to force "Kaiser Wilson" to end American involvement in World War I. In preparation for this nationwide revolt (apparently meant to be an armed march on Washington, D.C.), locals were encouraged to stockpile weapons and explosives in preparation for the uprising later in the summer. Munson was spinning a tremendous lie; there was no planned nationwide march, though perhaps he hoped the WCU's actions might spark one. Over the course of the summer, WCU members various scattered acts of violence: small bombings, robberies, and violent draft resistance. Federal authorities infiltrated the organization and briefly arrested Munson for a time.

On July 27, John "Old Man" Spears raised both American and Socialist flags on his land outside Sasakwa, Oklahoma (this Clio pin is near Spears' land). With this signal, hundreds of WCU members began gathering on his land, including whites, Blacks, and Natives. They gathered green corn and cattle in preparation for the long march to Washington (hence the "Green Corn Rebellion). On August 3, 1917, the rebellion began as the party began marching. They attempted to blow up several local bridges and railroad trestles and cut telegraph lines. Shots were exchanged with local police near Sasakwa. Men were told to "infest the brush of the roadsides and shoot down officers."[3]

They barely managed a few miles. Local authorities quickly formed well-armed posses. As Pontotoc County Sheriff Robert Duncan declared, "They'll either surrender or we'll shoot to kill."[3] The massive armed response to the rebels, combined with a realization that no national revolt was taking place, caused the Green Corn Rebellion to collapse. The rebels surrendered, and three were killed. Four hundred were arrested, and 150 were convicted and spent time in prison ranging from 60 days to ten years. The WCU effectively ceased to exist in Oklahoma following the revolt. Although the Socialist Party had no role in the rebellion, it suffered publicly and disbanded in the rebellion's wake. The affair left scars among the local communities; in 1939, a reporter noted, "Deep beneath the surface the 'Green Corn' rebellion is still a sore subject."[3]

There are no markers to the Green Corn Rebellion today, and relatively few people remember it. Perhaps its greatest legacy is the novel Green Corn Rebellion by Oklahoma author William Cunningham.

1. Nigel Anthony Sellars. "Green Corn Rebellion." Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Web. Accessed October 30, 2020. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=GR022

2. Trevor Paulhus. "When the Socialist Revolution Came to Oklahoma--And Was Crushed." October 2019. Smithsonian Magazine. Web. Accessed October 30, 2020. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/socialist-revolution-oklahoma-crushed-green-corn-rebellion-180973073/

3. Dale Ingram. "Green Corn Rebellion brought anarchy to rural Oklahoma." August 22, 2017. The Oklahoman. Web. Accessed October 31, 2020. https://oklahoman.com/article/5558373/green-corn-rebellion-brought-anarchy-to-rural-oklahoma

4. Nigel Anthony Sellars. "Treasonous Tenant Farmers and Seditious Sharecroppers: The 1917 Green Corn Rebellion Trials." National Agricultural Law Center. 2002. Web. Accessed October 31, 2020. http://nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/bibarticles/sellars_treasonous.pdf

5. Leigh Woosley. "WWI Uprising: Green Corn Rebellion: Dissident farmers marched to protest the draft." September 27, 2019. Tulsa World. Web. Accessed October 31, 2020. https://tulsaworld.com/archives/wwi-uprising-green-corn-rebellion-dissident-farmers-marched-to-protest/article_fe605677-6869-51f2-b45d-1d38db5cd16d.html

6. Jim Bissett. "Socialist Party." Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Web. Accessed November 1, 2020. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=SO001

Image Sources(Click to expand)

Smithsonian Magazine: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/socialist-revolution-oklahoma-crushed-green-corn-rebellion-180973073/

Trevor Paulhus, Smithsonian Magazine: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/socialist-revolution-oklahoma-crushed-green-corn-rebellion-180973073/