F. Scott Fitzgerald was born in
St. Paul, Minnesota and spent much of his early life there, but he also lived
for a time in Buffalo. The family moved to Buffalo when Scott’s father became a
soap salesman for Proctor &amp; Gamble. The family lived at a few addresses in
Buffalo and briefly moved to Syracuse before moving back to Buffalo.&nbsp;

One of the Fitzgerald family’s
Buffalo residences is now part of the Allentown Historic District. The home at
29 Irving Place was the Fitzgerald residence from 1903 to approximately 1905.
The Irving Place house is a short distance from the Proctor &amp; Gamble
offices.&nbsp;One of the may stories told of Fitzgerald during his childhood years in Buffalo is that he and friends would perform plays in the Irving Place House.The Fitzgeralds lived at Irving Place for roughly two years. During that time, the future writer was enrolled at Holy Angel's Academy and later at Nardin Academy. In March of 1908 his father lost his job at Proctor &amp; Gamble and later that year, the family moved back to St. Paul.

The childhood home of F. Scott Fitzgerald 

Though acclaimed author F. Scott Fitzgerald is most associated with St. Paul, Minnesota, where he spent most of his early life, and Manhattan, where much of fiction took place, the writer lived for a time as a child in Buffalo. Fitzgerald’s father was employed by Proctor & Gamble in Buffalo, and their one-time residence at 29 Irving Place was a short distance away from the company. The house is now part of the Allentown Historic District.

F. Scott Fitzgerald Childhood Home 

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Crisscrossing the heart of Buffalo in a mostly north to south pattern, this tour aims for efficiency as it takes the user to over two dozen landmark buildings, monuments, museums, and other sites that collectively help to tell the story of Buffalo. 

Construction of the Italian Renaissance style Zink Block occurred in 1896 for William T. Zink and his furniture sales and repair business. The building stands as a reminder of the growth experienced in Buffalo's west side near the Erie Canal and Niagra river; a residential and commercial building boom emerged near the turn of the century. Construction of the famed Erie Canal during the 1820s connected New York City to Buffalo on Lake Erie (effectively connecting New York to places like Chicago and then New Orleans via the Great Lakes and major rivers and canals). The city of Buffalo enjoyed growth due to the Erie Canal, notably the city's west side, where Zink Block emerged. Zink operated his store for thirty years in the location, serving as a neighborhood anchor business. Its presence as a furniture operation speaks to Buffalo's west side demographics at the time -- mainly middle-class residents with homes adorned by the trendy decor and furnishings.In addition to its use, the building's design speaks to the predominance of middle-class residents in the area. The Italian Renaissance design, provided by the nationally acclaimed Buffalo architect, Charles D. Swan, was one of several commercial and residential projects he undertook in Buffalo. A special 1890 Scientific American issue that showcased architects and builders featured two of Swan's residential designs. However, like many companies, the Great Depression took its told on Zink's store and leaving the building vacant by 1932. After four years, the Giant Market grocery business moved into the building in 1936 and remained there for twenty years. From the 1950s to the1980s, the building served as the home to a dry goods operation, auction house, warehouse, retail sales, and architectural artifacts storage facility. The building grew increasingly less significant to the neighborhood's economy and culture as the neighborhood itself experienced a decline. However, akin to many cities where old commercial districts have transitioned into neighborhoods catering to retailers, the service industry, and loft apartments, Buffalo's west side is undergoing a building-renovation boom. The Zink Block now serves as a mixed-use building with its basement and first floor serving as retail and market spaces and its upper four floors functioning as an apartment complex. Many of its historical uses remain etched in the brick exterior.

The Zink Block was completed in 1896, a time when Buffalo's west side was flourishing and home to a growing middle-class community. The residential building boom came with a need for home furnishings, and the Zink building stood as the area's most successful furniture store and repair shop. The Italian Renaissance design also speaks to the neighborhood's middle class culture. The architect, Charles Swan, designed numerous commercial and residential buildings in Buffalo, and enjoyed national acclaim for his work. The building is currently home to retailers on the first level with apartments on the upper four floors. 

Buffalo's Zink Block

Edward and Mary Kleinhans, owners of the Kleinhans men’s clothing store and residents of Buffalo, New York, were ardent music lovers and felt that the Elmwood Music Hall, which had been around since the late 1880s, was not a suitable location for the performance of music. As a result, they had plans to build a music hall that would be acoustically perfect and would be nothing short of excellent for the community of music lovers in Buffalo. Tragically, both Kleinhans died within three months of each other in 1934, but their desire to construct a new music was fulfilled using the fortunes left behind in their last wills.

Designs for the Kleinhans Music Hall were not submitted for several years until in May of 1938, when the brothers F.J. and William Kidd were hired on as the architects for the project and the renowned architect Eliel Saarinen and his son were hired as design consultants for the project. Construction started soon after, and on October 12th, 1940, the Kleinhans Music Hall opened with the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra’s first concert in the hall. The Music Hall was received with a great deal of critical approval, being heralded as one of the most acoustically perfect buildings in the world, a claim that still holds true today. The Hall saw many a famous musician perform there, such as Serge Koussevitzsky and Artur Rubenstein. In 1989, it was both designated as a National Historic Landmark&nbsp;and added to the National Register of Historic Places.

The Kleinhans Music Hall, built in the late 1930s at the behest of Edward and Mary Kleinhans, is a historic music hall in Buffalo, New York. Somewhat disappointed with the music accommodations of the city of Buffalo, the Kleinhans placed in their wills that much of their fortune was to be put forth to building a music hall that would be “suitable” for true performances. Today, the Kleinhans Music Hall continues to serve this purpose and is the home of the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra.

Kleinhans Music Hall

The historic house located at 641 Delaware Avenue in Buffalo, New York was first occupied by the Buffalo Barracks and sub-divided into a double home before the military installation sold it in the 1840s. After going through numerous owners, who eventually made it into a single home, the former mayor of Buffalo, Joseph Masten purchased the home in 1847 and lived there for close to ten years. In the early 1860s, an attorney named Albert P. Lanning purchased the home on Delaware Ave. and added a massive carriage house. Lanning died in 1880 and the home was sold again. In 1883, newly-wed Mary Grace Rumsey Wilcox received the home as a wedding gift from her father, and she and her new husband Ansley, a prominent lawyer and scholar, would call it home for 50 years. When the couple first moved in, the house only consisted of the old officers' quarters and a service wing at the back of the house. The Wilcox's destroyed the old service wing and added a larger addition to the house. These slight changes doubled the size of the Wilcox residence. On September 5, 1901, President William McKinley was shot at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo by Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was rushed into surgery but doctors could not find one of the two bullets. Still, the operation went smoothly and the president was sent to a nearby friend’s house to recover. Vice president Theodore Roosevelt arrived in Buffalo two days later and set-up residency at his friend Ansley Wilcox’s house for a few days. After being reassured the president’s condition was improving, Roosevelt left and went hiking in the Adirondack Mountains. On September 13, he received a telegram saying McKinley had taken a turn for the worse and to return to Buffalo immediately. President William McKinley died in the early morning hours on September 14, 1901. Theodore Roosevelt was met at Buffalo’s train station by Ansley Wilcox, who took the new president back to his residence. It was there in the library on the afternoon of September 14 that Theodore Roosevelt was sworn-in as the 26th president. Newspapermen were let in for the ceremony but were not permitted to take photos. Roosevelt left Ansley Wilcox’s home on September 16 with McKinley’s funeral procession.  Both Mary Grace and Ansley Wilcox passed away in the early 1930s. Shortly thereafter, the family auctioned off the home's furnishings. It appeared the vacant house was heading towards demolition. Finally in 1938, a couple named Oliver and Kathryn Lawrence purchased the house and opened a restaurant. They removed many of the historic architectural features, as well as the main interior staircase, to create a restaurant layout. The historic carriage house that Albert Lanning built was demolished to make room for a parking lot. The Lawrences decided to honor the history of the house by using a presidential theme; they put up flags, plaques, and placed pictures of Theodore Roosevelt around the dining rooms. At the spot where Roosevelt had stood to take the oath of office, a star was placed on the ceiling. Kathryn Lawrence's Dining Rooms served as one of the most popular restaurants in the Buffalo area until 1959. After Kathryn Lawrence's death, the Ansley Wilcox House was once again vacant and facing possible demolition. In 1963, the Junior League of Buffalo and other community organizations banded together to clean-up the house and save it. Finally, legislation was put forth to make the home a National Historic Site. Liberty National Bank purchased the property and held it until federal money began to come in. In 1966, the legislation passed and the Ansley Wilcox House became a National Historic Site and funds were used to restore and preserve the home. For two years it underwent extensive renovation and restoration and finally opened to the public on September 14, 1971, 70 years to the day of Theodore Roosevelt's inauguration in the library. In 2009, a $2.7 million project was completed at what is now known as the TR Inaugural Site, creating a new and updated experience for visitors. The guided museum tours are designed to take visitors back to that fateful day in 1901 through a tour of the home and three restored rooms, as well as interactive exhibits and various audio-visual presentations. The TR Inaugural Site does an exceptional job at preserving the Ansley Wilcox House and presenting the story of September 14, 1901, when one of the most dynamic figures in political history ascended to the presidency.

The Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site (also the Ansley Wilcox House) is the historic home in Buffalo, New York where, on September 14, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became the nation's 26th president. The home is one of the few sites where a presidential inauguration occurred outside of Washington D.C. The home opened as a museum in 1971. The museum offers an immersive experience, taking visitors back in time to the turn of the century Buffalo, which hosted the Pan-American Exposition in 1901. Exhibits describe the exposition and the assassination of President William McKinley, who was shot there and died a few days later on September 14. Visitors can also learn about Ansley Wilcox, owner of the house and a good friend of Roosevelt. The house was saved from demolition in the 1960s and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site (Ansley Wilcox House) 

The Twentieth Century Club in Buffalo, New York, officially opened on November 20, 1894, as one of the first private social clubs for women. Buffalo architects Green and Wicks redesigned and transformed the Delaware Avenue Baptist Church into a social club. Charlotte Mulligan, a music teacher and music editor at the Buffalo Courier Express, founded the club as a place that would "create an atmosphere where individual gifts would flower" in a time where women did not have many social roles.1 The club's purpose was to serve the interests of education, literature, and art. The Club's motto became Facta Probant, meaning "Let deeds tell." As the Twentieth Century Club continued to grow, Green and Wicks were again hired to create a new clubhouse, which stands today. <blockquote>Green and Wicks created an elegant three-story building designed with great dignity and charm. Built on grand old Delaware Avenue, once Buffalo’s street of dreams, the Twentieth Century Club is a bel canto aria to space, light, decorative art, and classical decorum. The Indiana limestone and pressed brick façade is balanced by graceful terra cotta cornices and blue marble Ionic columns on the second story, while the wrought iron side entrance gates are echoed in the intricate grillwork on the third story. The whole effect is pleasing, harmonious, inviting, and perfectly proportioned.1</blockquote> After a fire in 1923, the clubhouse was again redesigned. Architect Harold LeRoy Olmstead created a garden in the 1930s with a fountain and statue of Ceres. In the 20th century, the club had numerous notable visitors, such as Mrs. Edith Roosevelt and her daughter, Alice, and Mr. and Mrs. Booker T. Washington. A Wednesday lecture series has welcomed famous figures, like Eleanor Roosevelt, Robert Frost, and Thornton Wilder. Today, the Twentieth Century Club is the oldest women's club in Buffalo, and the second oldest in the country, next to the Acorn Club in Philadelphia.

Established in 1894, the Twentieth Century Club in Buffalo, New York, was the first private social club for women by women. With the motto Facta Probant - "Let deeds tell" - the women of the Twentieth Century Club focused on education, literature, and art. The clubhouse was rebuilt in the early 20th century in an Italian Renaissance style. Still in operation today, the Twentieth Century Club is the oldest women's social club in Buffalo, and the second oldest in the country. 

Twentieth Century Club

The Birge-Horton House is located within the Allentown Historic District of Buffalo, a neighborhood where mansions, four-story row houses, and social clubs demonstrated the wealth of the neighborhood's residents. The Birge-Horton home, a Georgia-Revival, four-row, brick townhouse was the last of thirteen luxury row houses built from 1893–1895. The home's residents -- owners and tenants alike -- were each an important part of early Buffalo history. However, the property's second owner, Katharine Pratt Horton, is remembered today as the most influential resident of the property. Horton actively participated in the Daughter of the Revolution for Buffalo and then donated the home to the foundation upon her death. The organization remains in the house and goes by the name: "Katherine Pratt Horton Buffalo Chapter, National Society Daughters of the American Revolution."During the late nineteenth century, Buffalo not only emerged as a major city -- ranking eighth in the country by the turn of the century, but supported a multitude of millionaires, many of whom lived on Delaware Avenue. Indeed, just north of the Birge-Horton location exists a stretch of Delaware Street known as "Millionaire's Row." The Birge-Horton property appeared in a spot called "The Midway Plaisance" (or "The Midway) where thirteen luxury row houses arose -- the Birge/Horton stands as the last one constructed. Though Buffalo offered plenty of housing to its residents by the late nineteenth century, investors speculated that wealthy residents from the East Coast, who often lived in row houses, would seek similar dwellings in Buffalo. All thirteen homes enjoyed a unique design, mainly built by separate architects and builders, but carry enough similarity to appear as if designed as one project. The Birge-Horton House was designed by the acclaimed Buffalo architects E. B. Green and W. S. Wicks for Henry and Fanny Birge. Mr. Birge operated as a partner in the Birge Wallpaper Co; however, records show that Fanny technically owned the house. The four-row, brick house enjoyed a grand staircase that rose four stories high, although each level enjoyed a novel design. The home also contained six marble fireplaces among its many luxurious features. The Birges only resided in the home a few years before health issues forced Henry to retire. The couple moved to New York and divorced shortly before Henry died in 1904. Fanny never returned to Buffalo, but she retained the home until 1906. During the six years away from Buffalo, Fanny rented the house to prominent tenants. Peter Porter, an entrepreneur and politician, lived in the home from 1901 - 1903. During the late 1880s, he had introduced the legislation that spurred the development of the Niagara Falls power project that famously electrified Buffalo. His father died during the Civil War, and his great-grandfather gained fame during the War of 1812 (and he fought during the American Revolution, too).Mrs. Frances M. Wolcott and her son, Lyman M Bass, lived in the home from 1905 to 1904. They had tied to numerous prominent Buffalo citizens, including Grover Cleveland; her first husband's law firm represented him. Wolcott's second husband -- a business associate of her first husband -- served as a U.S. Senator from Colorado. Wolcott arrived in Buffalo, though, without a husband. Instead, she appeared to live as a socialite who routinely hosted and attended parties and events in Buffalo and European cities. Katherine Pratt Horton moved into the home in 1906 and rented it for 14 years before finally purchasing it from Fanny Binge in 1924. She stayed in the home until she died in 1931. Before her and during her time in the Birge-Horton house, Horton actively participated in civic, social, and political events, led (and often founded) several local and national societies, notably the Daughters of the American Revolution (Horton founded the local chapter in 1892). She also served on the Women's Board of Managers at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition. She also represented Buffalo at the 1902 Charleston Exposition, the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair, and the 1914 Panama-Pacific Exposition. Additionally, she was a delegate to the International Peace Arbitration Congress in Europe. When Horton died in 1931, she bequeathed the home and all its furnishings to the Daughters of the American Revolution, the club for which she expressed the most passion. She left $20,000 to the society to maintain the historic house and use it as the club's headquarters. Thus, the chapter became the third (and still current) owner of the home and subsequently renamed it the Katharine Pratt Horton Buffalo Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution.

This four-story row townhouse was constructed in 1895 alongside many others on Delaware Street at this time when numerous millionaires and people of influence called this neighborhood home. The Birge-Horton home enjoyed an elegant design and plenty of modern amenities and the home's owners and neighboring residents were among many leading Buffalo citizens tied to community activism, social events, politics, and business. The home's second owner, Katharine Pratt Horton, represented Buffalo at World's Fairs and other expositions across the country. She also founded the local chapter of the Daughters of the Revolution (DAR). When she died, Katherine Horton left her house and money to the DAR. The organization remains in the historic home and operates today as the Katherine Pratt Horton Buffalo Chapter, National Society Daughters of the American Revolution. 

Birge-Horton House (Katherine Pratt Horton Buffalo Chapter, National Society Daughters of the American Revolution)

Most notable of Buffalo’s LGBT-activists through the years is Madeline Davis, founding member of the Mattachine Society and the first openly gay speaker at a Democratic National Convention in 1972. She co-authored “Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold,” a study of Buffalo’s lesbian working class from the 1930s through 1960s, which became universally recognized as the definitive work on the socio-economic topic. <div> </div>

Buffalo native Ani DiFranco was a singer-songwriter who created Babeville – a multi-use facility devoted to the arts. She saved and then converted a historic church into this performing arts space. DiFranco also created an indie label, Righteous Babe Records.

Buffalo’s chapter of the LGBT movement spans back long before DiFranco. During the 1950s, the city’s gay scene flourished, but the following decade ushered in a new political landscape, and a need for the community to organize became apparent. Buffalo helped fashion the idea of an LGBT community center in the ’60s. The grassroots effort operated seven days a week and published a gay newspaper called “5th Freedom.”

Babeville

Shea's Buffalo Theatre, designed by C. W. and George Rapp, opened in 1926 during an era when grand theater palaces opened in cities throughout the nation. Movie palaces served as the antithesis to the previous decade's troubled times marked by a world war, a global pandemic, and civic unrest. The large theatres were also intended to signal the growth of a city, foster civic pride, and celebrate a region's robust economy and growth. The Buffalo Theatre's elegance included marble and mirrored interiors, upscale furniture, enormous Czechoslovakian crystal chandeliers, and the celebrated Wurlitzer theatre organ. During the 1920s, motion pictures grew into a lucrative industry. Movie palaces enhanced the movie experience with its brightly lit marquees, extravagant lobbies, and ornate theatre designs. Guests routinely enjoyed vaudeville routines and live music before the movie started -- an authentic entertainment experience. Shea's Buffalo Theatre opened in 1926, named for its builder, Michael Shea. Michael Shea was a Buffalo native was born in 1859 to Irish-immigrant parents. His humble youth included working as a dock laborer and as a young man, he was a structural iron worker. He invested in the growing city he helped build with his two hands and rose to become the owner of theaters in Buffalo and Toronto. Shea spared no expense with the theatre that would bear his name and come to represent his city. He hired the famed theatre architects C. W. and George L. Rapp of Chicago, whose resume included New York's Paramount Theatre and Chicago's Oriental Theatre. The construction's final cost nearly hit $2 million (equal to $30 million in 2020).An early brochure speaks to the grandness of the Buffalo Theatre: "There's room for all...We've made this theatre tremendous in size as well as overwhelmingly magnificent in decoration. It will hush you, aw you, stagger you." The Rapp brothers designed the theatre to resemble seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European opera houses and palaces. Rudolf Wurlitzer Co. provided the massive theatre organ consisting of pipes ranging from the size of a straw to thirty-two-feet long. The theatre initially accommodated nearly 4,000 patrons, but renovations during the Great Depression reduced that number by almost 1,000 seats. Despite the theatre's luxurious appearance, the Buffalo did not offer reserved seating, and the price of admission proved affordable to most economic classes (but almost exclusively for White residents as the city largely remained segregated). The vast majority of movie palaces in the U.S. have been demolished or renovated beyond recognition. Still, the Buffalo Theatre has survived aging issues, struggling economies, the rise of multiplex cinemas, and foreclosures on the historic building. The Friends of Buffalo organization saved the theatre during the 1970s, including winning a decisive court battle against the Loews chain (who had operated the theatre since the 1950s). Loews had planned to gut the theatre and sell its contents. The Friends of Buffalo used government grants to fund a massive renovation and restoration of the theatre. As a result, the historic building reopened in the 1970s as an off-Broadway theatre venue. Today, it remains a vibrant part of the Buffalo entertainment scene, hosting everything from Broadway plays to big-name comedians to a wide range of live music shows. (Although, as of 2020, the theatre is closed due to the global COVID19 pandemic.)

Built in 1926, Shea's Buffalo Theatre opened at a time when the movie industry was booming and hundreds of movie palaces opened in cities across the U.S. While many of the downtown movie palaces built in the 1920s were elegant, the nearly $2 million Buffalo Theatre was one of the most opulent theaters of the era. The architects, C.W and George L Rapp, also designed New York's Paramount Theatre and Chicago's Oriental Theatre. They designed the Buffalo Theatre to resemble seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European opera houses. Unlike the vast majority of movie palaces that did not survive the twentieth century, Shea's remains a vibrant part of the Buffalo entertainment and social scene. 

Shea's Buffalo Theatre (Shea's Performing Arts Center)

Founded in 1974, the Center for Exploratory and Perceptual Arts (CEPA) is one of the oldest and largest non-profit photography and visual arts organizations of its kind in the country. It offers changing exhibits, numerous education programs for people of all ages, and darkroom and digital labs that are open to the public. It's photography collection includes pictures by Jean-Michel Basquiat, and Patricia Layman Bazelon. The museum also invites photographers from the community to submit their work (using a single-use Kodak camera) to the Visions of Greater Buffalo program; the best pictures are on display on the museum's website. The museum merged with the Big Orbit Gallery in 2013 and has worked with the Just Buffalo Literary Center since 2005 to better promote the arts in Buffalo.

Center for Exploratory and Perceptual Arts (CEPA Gallery)

By the late 1890s, Niagara Falls had effectively been transformed into an organic machine, where its power had been harnessed and converted into hydroelectric power -- and Buffalo benefited mightily. The city's early embrace of electric power led to the nickname "The City of Light," notably after displaying the wonders of electricity at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition. A little more than a decade later, The General Electric Tower opened in 1912. The tower resembled the Tower of Light that served as the centerpiece of the 1901 Exposition, which paid homage to the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria that for centuries stood as one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World. Over time, Western New York's power development helped electrify much of New York State. The building appears to have been constructed in one piece, but only the tower and a short section on Huron Street existed in 1912. Additions and expansions to the building emerged in 1924 and 1926 as business boomed. The tower sits on land once home to Buffalo's second mayor, Major Andre Andrews, followed by a hotel. The hotel's demolition occurred in 1909 to make way for the fourteen-story (plus three-story cupola) Electric Tower and four-story office and retail wing that opened in 1912. The Buffalo General Electric Company occupied the first flour floors while floors five through thirteen served as tenant office space and the fourteenth floor a men's lounge and steam room. The building also served as a retail center; people visited the tower to buy electric appliances and light bulbs. In 1930, the Buffalo Electric Company consolidated with the larger Niagara Hudson Power Company. The newly consolidated company subsequently altered the tower from its original Beaux-Arts composition to an Art Deco style. Little changes occurred to the building for most of the twentieth century, although a larger merger of several electric companies in 1950 resulted in the formation of the Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation. In 1992, significant renovation to the Electric Building took place, consisting of restoring the Terra Cotta surfaces and removing the 1930s Art Deco to return the building to its original Beaux Art style. The Iskalo Development Corporation purchased the building in 2004 and consequently undertook a comprehensive, multi-year restoration and renovation of the historic building. The building stands prominently amidst the Buffalo skyline at night because of its brightly lit top tiers. The Electric Tower also hosts the New Year's Ball Drop, the nation's second-longest-running New Year's celebration next to the famed Times Square event.The tower survives as a reminder of a time when electricity remained a new, fascinating invention. That Buffalo served as one of the nation's most notable examples of an electrified city (garnering the nickname, "City of Lights"), served as a source of civic pride. The city proudly boasted of its electrical prowess at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition and then again with the 1912 General Electric Tower. Although electricity exists as a common resource during the twenty-first century, the building's history and its architectural grandeur continue to make it one of the city's most recognizable landmarks.

The Electric Building, or General Electric Building, opened in 1912 and has survived as one of Buffalo's most recognizable buildings. The design resembles the Pan-American Exposition’s Tower of Light, which in turn drew its inspiration from the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria, which for centuries stood as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.The Electric Tower had one primary purpose: promote the use of electricity. Buffalo served as one of the leading urban centers when it came to electrical use, having harnessed the power of Niagara Falls during the late 1890s, but plenty remained without electricity even as late as 1920.

Electric Tower (also known as General Electric Tower and Niagara Mohawk Building)

Construction on the six-story, terra cotta style Harlow C. Curtiss Building occurred from 1912 to 1913. The building was designed by architect Paul F Mann for his brother-in-law Harlow Clarke Curtiss. The building served as an office complex, though Curtiss -- a prominent attorney and real estate mogul, did not maintain an office in the building. The structure remains one of Buffalo's largest terra cotta buildings and serves as a reminder of the city's rapid growth at the turn of the century as Buffalo established itself as the commercial hub of western New York. Curtiss came to Buffalo in 1861 at the age of three years old when his parents moved to the city from Utica, New York. He gained his law education as an apprentice instead of attending law school, having obtained his legal training as part of the firm managed by Grover Cleveland, who served as Buffalo Mayor, Governor of New York, and eventually U.S. President. In 1884, Curtiss established a private law practice that would last forty years. However, he remained dedicated to Cleveland. Curtiss actively supported the local Democratic Party, served as a Democratic Party delegate, and supported Cleveland's presidential campaigns. His political connections and growing law practice all helped him attain abundant wealth. His financial success allowed him to build a grand household for his family and also enabled him to invest heavily in commercial real estate, including the historic building that bears his name. Curtiss died in 1933 (during the Great Depression) at the age of 75 years old. The Curtiss Building opened in 1913 as an exemplary terra cotta style structure, a design style trend attached to lauded Chicago-School architects such as Daniel Burnham and Louis Sullivan, both of whom designed buildings in Buffalo as well as Chicago. Architect Paul F. Mann, brother in law to Harlow Curtiss, designed the building. Like Curtiss, Mann enjoyed a U.S. Presidential connection as his father, Dr. Matthew D. Mann, operated on President William McKinley in 1901 after McKinley had been shot at Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. (However, Dr. Mann was a trained gynecologist, and his surgery proved unsuccessful; McKinley died a few days late and Teddy Roosevelt was sworn in.) However, Mann had not achieved much at the time Curtiss wanted to build the now-historic office building. But, Curtiss gave Mann a chance, and that opportunity propelled Mann's career, which included designing several of Buffalo's commercial buildings. The building arose at a time when Buffalo had evolved into a commercial hub in Western New York. The city benefited from The Erie Canal (1825), which connected Buffalo to New York City, as well as the Great Lakes and the industrial cities its shores. Another environmental advantage that spurred speculators to invest in Buffalo for decades included the nearby Niagara Falls, which had been harnessed as a power source to generate electricity in the city by the turn of the century. Steel mills and other industries took advantage of the power and waterway access (and eventually railways), which helped the Buffalo grow economically and enjoy a population boom. The boom in residential construction and overall booming economy for the town can also be noted by the Curtiss building's primary occupant when the building opened: The Kittinger Furniture Company. Kittinger enjoyed a reputation as a prestigious furniture business. Other occupants included lawyers, doctors, and stationers, but Curtiss did not have an office in the new building. Ethel Mann Curtiss, the building's legal owner, sold it in 1920 just as Harlow chose to commission a new office building in Buffalo; the new building took the Curtiss name while the 1913 structure transitioned to the King &amp; Eisele Building. The building's ownership changed several times between that first sale in 1920 to the early 1990s when the historic structure lay vacant. Real estate developer Mark Croce purchased the building in 2002, followed by adjacent lands in subsequent years. In 2017, Croce completed an $18 million building renovation and re-opened the building as the home of the Curtiss Hotel.

Buffalo attorney Harlow Curtiss funded the construction of this building, which was completed in 1913. The era saw continued expansion of Buffalo's economy and downtown district as businesses took advantage of the city's location along the Erie Canal, Great Lakes, and the potential of nearby Niagra Falls as a source of electrical power. Curtiss not only proved to be a prominent attorney and real estate investor in Buffalo, but he was also a close associate of President Grover Cleveland. Following extensive renovation and restoration efforts, the building is now home to the Curtiss Hotel. 

Harlow C. Curtiss Building and Curtiss Hotel

Karnak Flats (circa 1898) survives as a significant example of a late nineteenth-century Buffalo apartment building. The Colonial Revival style apartments arose during a period of robust growth in apartment construction as middle- and upper-class professionals (usually young) sought quality suburban housing. Between 1896 and 1900, real estate developers constructed 133 apartment buildings whose clientele almost exclusively belonged to the wealthier classes. For most of America's existence until the Civil War, apartment living enjoyed little popularity. A spacious (and expanding), mostly agrarian country where owning land enjoyed substantial value culturally, politically, and economically, prevented much need or desire for multi-dwelling living. However, the late nineteenth-century industrialization and urbanization (along with increased immigration) led to a need for cheaper residential buildings, notably in massively growing cities like New York. As cities continued to thrive, populations grew immensely, leading to soaring property values and decreased land availability. Thus, apartments eventually catered to every class, with wealthy residents moving into ornate, spacious apartments filled with amenities. As cities grew overly congested and dirty around the turn of the twentieth century, residents with financial means took advantage of the advances in transportation such as local trains that connected cities to growing suburbs. And eventually, the automobile made its presence felt in American culture. Thus, residents moved away from the city to outer suburbs. The urban mindset and acceptance of apartment living continued to make apartment development a popular choice in the suburbs, notably among young professionals and newly married couples. The Karnak Flats mirrored the broader, national trend in apartment living. The Flats emerged in a well-established suburb that formed shortly after the Civil War. Moreover, construction of the apartment complex occurred roughly the same time Buffalo and vicinity first received electricity from Niagara's waters; the city and nearby suburbs increasingly became electrified. The spacious layout of the Karnack Flats speaks to the financial makeup of its residents. The design consisted of two apartments per floor, each with seven rooms. And, each residence contained a host of modern amenities. Still, Karnak tenants stayed for a relatively short period before moving even further from the city to newer suburbs developed during the economic boom of the 1920s. Thus, skilled and unskilled workers begin to displace the wealthy residents at Karnak. As the socioeconomic makeup of the complex changed, so did the layouts. The apartments were divided in half during the 1930s (Great Depression) so that more residents filled the building, but all enjoyed less space. Each passing decade, notably because the apartments showed their age, the tenants' economic makeup continued to move towards the impoverished; by the 1970s, the Karnak functioned as public housing.  Like most cities during the twenty-first-century, there's been an increase in renovating nineteenth-century structures, turning them into apartments and retail spaces. The Karnak Flats sold in 2014 for $4,316,290, and the building again serves as an apartment complex.

The ornate, Colonial Style Karnak Flats apartment building arose in 1898 at a time when Buffalonians increasingly enjoyed the use of electricity and the city grew into the nation's eighth largest. Apartment living increasingly grew popular as the nation urbanized and space for land decreased. The middle and upper classes sought apartments that included amenities, luxuries, and plenty of space -- the Karnak offered that. But, by the 1920s, a booming economy allowed for a surge in apartment building leaving the Karnak to look old and out of date in comparison. By the Great Depression of the 1930s, the apartment sizes were cut in half and the renters transitioned from wealthy to laborers, and eventually the building functioned as public housing during the 1970s. Today, it again stands as a middle-class apartment building. 

Karnak Flats

Finished in 1931 by the architectural firm of Dietel, Wade &amp; Jones, Buffalo City Hall serves as the seat for municipal government in the City of Buffalo, New York. The Art Deco, thirty-two-story (nearly 400-foot-tall) building stands as one of the largest and tallest municipal buildings in the United States and is also one of the tallest buildings in Western New York; it stood as Buffalo's tallest building until 1970. The structure survives as a reminder of the booming economy and optimism of the 1920s demonstrated by the popular Art Deco style of the decade, which reached its zenith during the first year or two of the Great Depression.  The origins of Buffalo City Hall date back to 1851 when the city purchased property on the now-historic lot and used it as the offices for the Mayor and city officials. Still, construction on the much grander building had to wait until the 1870s. The building, now known as the County and City Hall, opened in 1875 and featured three floors and a seven-story clock tower. The City of Buffalo and Erie County maintained offices in the building. By 1920, the city population had quadrupled, which pushed the city council to pursue funding and plans to build a new structure. Yet again, it took some years before that plan came to fruition (mainly because a 1922 decision to host a contest for the best architectural design never materialized, which created a four-year delay in planning). The city chose Niagara Square to build the now-historic City Hall because of its central location and the view it would provide. Construction arose during the height of American optimism on September 16, 1929, a mere few weeks before the infamous stock market crash and subsequent onset of the Great Depression. The city offices moved into the new structure when it opened in 1931, while Erie County remained in the old building constructed in 1875. Dedication of the building waited for the next summer, taking place during Buffalo's centennial celebration on July 1, 1932. The Art Deco design building proved popular during the 1920s when the economy boomed. So, though the building did not get finished until 1931, the Art Deco style stands as a reminder of the booming economy that existed during the planning of the government building. The construction cost amounted to $6,851,546.85 ($116 million in 2020), making it one of the country's costliest city halls. One unique feature consists of its windows, which open inward and can be cleaned without expensive window washers. Another innovation involved its natural air conditioning system; vents placed on the west side captured the cool, prevailing breezes provided by Lake Erie and channeled them through ducts to the cool underground beneath the basement before venting them throughout the building. The imposing structure has few neighbors making it stand out even more than most skyscrapers. Besides its Art Deco style and place amidst the skyline, the interior enjoys numerous eye-catching details, from artwork and murals to elegant archways to numerous ornate details. Much of the art tells the story of Buffalo's history, including works that showcase the Iroquois Nation and the Erie Canal construction. Significant renovations to the building occurred from 2006 - 2009, including to its popular observation deck. All can enjoy the good views imagined by the city planners in 1920. Visitors can take an elevator to the 25th floor and then use stairs to the 28th floor to reach the observation deck, which offers 360-degree views of Buffalo from approximately 300 feet above the city. Indeed, on some days, one can see the mist emanating from Niagara Falls.

Planning for this historic civic building occurred during the late 1920s and construction started roughly a month before the 1929 stock market crash. The building is notable for its Art Deco style that grew exceptionally popular during the 1920s. The building opened in 1931, but the official commemoration took place in 1932 during Buffalo's centennial celebration. The interior and exterior are adorned with artwork that details much of the city's history and culture. Visitors can view the city and surrounding areas from its 28th-floor observation deck, located 300 feet above the city. 

Buffalo City Hall

Opened in 1909, H. A. Meldrum Company Building is a historic eight-story department store building, built as an addition to the Meldrum department store located a few blocks away. However, the 1909 structure is the only survivor of the successful H. A. Meldrum Company, which operated from 1897 to 1922. By 1880, roughly 55 years after the opening of the Erie Canal that connected New York City to the Great Lakes through Buffalo, the population of Buffalo had expanded from 1,500 in the early nineteenth century to 155,000. The population exceeded 350,000 by the turn of the century as the city's street-car suburbs developed in association with a residential building boom throughout the metro area. In 1896, Buffalo and its suburbs reaped the benefits of hydroelectric power generated at Niagra Falls. One year later, the H. A. Meldrum Company established its business serving both city residents and those who commuted to the city from the suburbs. The concept of the department store emerged in New York City during the 1860s, but its popularity grew substantially around the turn of the century in association with the rise in consumer culture and ease for which items were mass-produced and shipped during the Second Industrial Revolution. Department stores evolved into businesses that not only made goods readily available but turned shopping into a recreational activity. Herbert Alexander Meldrum (1870-1960) was the son of Alexander Meldrum, a prominent Buffalo businessperson and founder of Adam, Meldrum &amp; Anderson (AM&amp;A), Buffalo's largest and most well-known department store for more than 125 years. Herbert Meldrum worked for his father until 1897, when he decided to open his own store. By 1898, Herbert introduced the first automobile delivery service -- using an electric car -- in Buffalo. In 1906, he brought attention to his store when he sponsored the city's first power-propelled airship flight, which landed on the H.A. Meldrum and Company Building roof. His company grew so successful that Meldrum decided to add to his company's original five-story store located on Main Street. During the 1910s, he also served for seven years as a member of the Buffalo State Hospital board of managers, Chamber of Commerce president for three terms (starting in 1913), the first American Savings Bank president (established 1907), and then its chairman of the board. Typical of wealthy entrepreneurs and elites during the Gilded Age, he also belonged to numerous social clubs.The company remained in the historic building address until financial issues forced Meldrum to go into receivership in 1922. As a result, the Meldrum company sold the store and all of its assets to the E.W. Edwards &amp; Sons Company, an established merchant based in Rochester and Syracuse. Edwards &amp; Sons remained in the building until 1952. Thus, from 1909 to 1952, the structure functioned as a popular shopping center. But, from 1952 to the early twenty-first century, the building enjoyed a much less exciting history. Finally, in 2013, an expansive renovation project breathed new life into the historic building, converting int into a luxury apartment complex (The Antonio) on the top seven floors with the bottom floor used as commercial space.

When the eight-story H.A. Meldrum Company Building opened in 1909, the building was home to the local company's second store in Buffalo. Herbert Alexander Meldrum opened his first store in 1897, and in so doing, built upon the dry goods and retail legacy led by his father, Alexander, who opened the locally renowned Adam, Meldrum & Anderson (AM&A) in 1867. Meldrum enjoyed exceptional success for decades until troubles forced the sale of the company in 1922 to E.W. Edwards & Sons Co, another retailer who occupied the building until 1952. Today, the building serves as a luxury apartment complex known as The Antonio.

H. A. Meldrum Company Building (The Antonio)

Tishman Building, or 10 Lafayette Square, is a 263-foot, twenty-story high-rise office tower completed in 1959, having replaced the six-story Buffalo German Insurance Company Building that stood on that lot for eighty-one years, from 1876 to 1957. The Tishman name comes from a Polish immigrant who turned his success as the owner of an 1895 New York City dry goods store into a real estate company that has built well-known skyscrapers throughout the country. Besides the historic Buffalo building, the Tishman name is attached to such notable skyscrapers as Chicago's John Hancock Center and the newly-built One World Trade Center, which stands in place of the twin towers destroyed during the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001.The Tishman name comes from Julius Tishman, a Polish immigrant who moved to the U.S. (New York) in 1885. Tishman worked for a merchant on New York's Lower East Side for a few years before opening a dry goods store in 1890 followed by Julius Tishman &amp; Sons department store. His success in the retail world allowed him to invest in real estate, starting with purchasing the tenement building where he lived with his family. Like his success within the realm of retail, his real estate investments gained in size and value so that by the 1920s he financed the building of luxury apartment buildings in otherwise undesirable locations in New York City. The risk he took proved highly profitable, and by 1928 his firm, Tishman Realty &amp; Construction, went public on the New York Curb Exchange. Tishman died in 1936, but his company remained relevant throughout the twentieth and into the twenty-first century. The Great Depression and World War II changed how Tishman Realty &amp; Construction conducted business, avoiding development projects, and instead focusing on existing properties. It wasn't until 1946 that the company started to finance original projects such as a property at 445 Park Avenue, the first office building erected on Park Avenue after World War II. The Park Avenue building existed as the first property to have central air conditioning, fluorescent lighting throughout the building, and fully automatic elevators. As the 1950s and 1960s progressed, Tishman's company expanded its reach to the entire country. By the mid-1960s, Tishman served as the second largest office landlord in Chicago, and the company built the city's landmark, 100-story John Hancock Center. John Tishman, grandson of Julius, took over the company during the 1970s. The company went on to build and own a vast network of commercial structures, totaling more than 300 million square feet of property in last decades of the twentieth century and early twenty first century. The company's most famous property is one of its most recent projects: One World Trade Center, which was constructed at the site of the former World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan. One World Trade Center stands as the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere. The massive structure took its name from the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which had been destroyed during the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.The Tishman portfolio also includes the historic Buffalo skyscraper, which replaced in 1959 another landmark six-story building that had stood on the lot for eighty-one years prior. Though the Tishman group would never build again in Buffalo, the skyscraper did set in motion a string of downtown construction projects, notable since nothing had been built for thirty years before the Tishman Building. The Tishman building was home to the Fortune 500 company, National Fuel Gas (formerly Iroquois Gas), until 2003. In May 2011, a $41 million renovation project resulted in the building transitioning to a mixed-use building that includes apartments, office space, and a 123-room Hilton Garden Inn.

Buffalo's Tishman Building was completed in 1959 and the building replaced an 81-year old landmark structure that had been erected in 1876. The building ended a thirty-year drought in downtown construction in Buffalo and set in motion a string of new projects for the city's commercial center. The building was constructed by a company founded in the 19th century by Polish immigrant Julis Tishman who arrived in Buffalo in 1890 and turned the profit of his dry goods store into a multi-generational family-owned real estate and construction firm. The company continues to build new structures including One World Trade Center in New York City. Today, this building is home to office space, apartments, and a hotel. 

Tishman Building (10 Lafayette Square)

Louise Bethune, the country's first professional woman architect, designed The Hotel Lafayette opened in 1902 shortly after the city hosted the successful 1901 Pan-American Exposition. (Although, a gunshot mortally wounded president McKinley at the Fair ). Buffalo's population grew from slightly more than 80,000 in 1860 to 352,387 by 1900, climbing to the nation's eighth-largest city. By the turn of the century, Buffalo also supported more than sixty millionaires and a robust economy.In 1897, Buffalo harnessed the power of the Niagara Falls as a source of hydroelectric power, which provided electricity to Buffalo. The Hotel Lafayette benefited by technological feat by becoming the first hotel to have electricity. Other firsts included offering guests hot and cold running water, a telephone in each room, and all-inclusive services comprised of laundry, a billiard room, a reading room, restaurants, and a tobacconist. Another first involved the hotel's architect, Louise Bethune, the country's first professional woman architect and first female member and Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. In addition to the amenities, the ornate, French Renaissance hotel served as the first to have a fireproof design. A remodeling project during the 1940s replaced the French Renaissance details with and Art Moderne style, popular during the era. By the 1960s, the hotel showed its age, correlating with a city suffering from a bad economy. The hotel closed, the roof leaked, the structure exhibited tremendous decline overall, which increased throughout the twentieth century. The hotel's second life arrived in 2010 when developer Rocco Termini purchased the historic building with a plan to restore it. One discovery of the renovation process included uncovering an enormous wall painting by American impressionist, Abbott Graves. The architects also discovered a false floor in the main hallway covering a staircase descending to a hidden speakeasy. The speakeasy makes sense given that Hotel Lafayette's primary financier was a Rochester distiller. Indeed, the hotel's restaurant was the first to serve alcohol after prohibition ended.

Louise Bethune, perhaps the first full-time professional female architect in the United States, designed the Hotel Lafayette in 1902. Five years earlier, the city harnessed Niagara Falls as a source of electricity and this hotel became the first in the city to provide electricity to its guests along with hot and cold running water and a telephone in each room. Buffalo's most luxurious hotel until the mid-twentieth century, Hotel Lafayette hotel experienced a substantial decline during after the 1960s as hotels along the interstate eclipsed those near rail stations and downtown business districts. An extensive renovation project after 2010 restored the hotel to its former status as a high-end hotel, a reflection of the returned growth of downtown Buffalo as a destination for travelers and business. 

Hotel Lafayette

During the nineteenth century, investors viewed Buffalo's location on the Erie Canal and Lake Erie as advantageous, resulting in the city emerging as a commercial hub of Western New York. The E.M. Hager &amp; Sons Co. Planing Mill, built in three stages (1878, 1880, and 1920), survives as an excellent example of the mid-nineteenth century manufacturing plants common during Buffalo's commercial boom. The company's history, one that transitioned from constructing timber-framed structures to one that focused on interior wood crafting, also speaks to the evolution of building from wood-framing to concrete and steel. Buffalo's evolution into a manufacturing hub came with a boom for industries tied to construction as companies needed factories and warehouses while workers needed housing. E.M. Hager &amp; Sons emerged as one of the most successful operations during the late nineteenth century. The company name comes from its founder, Edward M. Hager, a German immigrant who first worked with at his brother's grocery store before moving to New Jersey to learn carpentry. Hager's path back to Buffalo took a detour when Hagar joined the 68th Regiment of New York City during the Civil War. After the war, he returned to Buffalo and briefly worked in the flour and feed business before getting married and then focusing again on carpentry work. In 1868, Hagar established the E. M. Hager and Sons Company, having opened it the same year his second child (of five) had been born. Hagar seized on the opportunities born out of an economic and building boom for Buffalo. Hager's company initially specialized in timber-framed construction, the most common construction method in the years following the Civil War, until steel and concrete framing arose during the late nineteenth century. The E. M. Hager &amp; Sons Company expanded rapidly, mirroring the growth of Buffalo. By the mid-1800s, Buffalo benefited from thriving industries that included shipbuilding, meatpacking, lumber, and grain. By 1900, Buffalo stood as the eighth-largest city in the United States. Hager &amp; Sons went on to construct a multitude of Buffalo's early factories, grain elevators, churches, schools, and private homes. In 1873, Hager built something less expected: the scaffolding for Buffalo's first public execution in Lafayette Square. The E. M. Hager Company &amp; Sons building arose in 1878 and added an addition in 1880. By 1894, Hager's sons, George J. and August C., joined the company. E. M. Hager Company &amp; Sons worked on numerous projects during the 1890s and, in 1901, served as a prime contractor during the Pan American Exposition. All of the structures and buildings constructed by the E.M. Hager Company &amp; Sons at the Exposition consisted of wood. But, many builders by then had transitioned to steel and concrete framing.The elder Hager died in 1919, leaving his son August C. in charge, but August died one year later (1920) just as the company added its last addition to the E.M. Hager &amp; Sons Co Building. As a result of their passing, the company went to George J., who managed the family business until 1954. During George's tenure, the company largely transitioned to interior furnishings. In 1926, the company started producing store fixtures, tavern bars, and equipment for schools and banks to go with its elegant, wood-carved interiors found in many of Buffalo's mansions.

Construction on the E.M. Hager & Sons Co. Building occurred in three staged with the main building finished in 1878 followed by additions in 1880 and 1920. The building represents a period for Buffalo where factories and warehouses dotted its urban landscape. Buffalo stood as the eighth largest city in the U.S by 1900 and served as a manufacturing hub. The historic building survives as a symbol of the type of commercial architecture common for the era. The changing nature of the business, focused first on timber-frame construction and then shifting to wood carvings and interior finishing (with wood) speaks to the city's building boom and transition away from wood framing to steel and concrete. 

E.M. Hager & Sons Co. Building 

The historic club emerged in 1917 during an era of prevalent segregation; southern and rural Black Americans migrated in droves to the city to work in its steel mills and other companies. The club represents Black history as much as the history of jazz and its musicians. Jazz clubs proved exceptionally popular in African American communities during the interwar period, and it also enjoyed mainstream appeal in some locations. However, white musician unions forbade the acceptance of Black musicians, so they formed an independent union. The club started as a social, post-work-day gathering place. However, the club quickly transitioned into a space for band practice, union meetings, and occasional performances. They moved into the now-historic building in 1934, which evolved into a jazz hotspot. Jazz greats routinely visited the club as they traveled through Buffalo along the jazz circuit, which also included places like Kansas City, Chicago, Detroit, New York, and even Paris. Until February 1917, only one musician's union existed in Buffalo, and it didn't accept Black artists. So, a group of African American musicians decided to create a union that catered to people of color: AFM Local 533. By 1918, they operated a social club, dining hall, and a place to conduct band rehearsals. The Colored Musicians Club, a separate entity from Local 533, purchased a new site and moved there in 1934 (now deemed historic by New York and the National Register). The union held its meetings on the first floor while upstairs while the upstairs played host to lively jazz performances. The jazz club grew into a spot for jazz greats to visit, including Billie Holiday, Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, Count Basie, Duke Ellington, and Ella Fitzgerald. In 1969, the American Federation of Musicians' national board ordered Buffalo's Black and white musician unions to merge. Together, they created Local 92. While ostensibly serving as a sign of progress in form, the newly united association remained highly biased towards white musicians in function; thus, many Black musicians found themselves without jobs. Today, it's the only remaining African American club in the country (the oldest-running club of its kind in the nation). Visitors can visit the first Colored Musicians Club Museum on the first floor and enjoy its multimedia archive and exhibits that tell the story of jazz history at the venue, and the broader narrative. The second floor offers visitors a chance to enjoy jazz (guests can enjoy performances and jam sessions on Sundays). The museum also strives to encourage the research and preservation of jazz history in Buffalo. In a much broader sense, the building represents American Black history and the disparate cultures forged by white and Black Americans during the twentieth century, both tied to legal segregation and prevailing racism that remained after the 1960s.

Standing as a monument to both jazz and Black history, the 1934 building has served musicians of color (mainly jazz musicians) since it opened. The 1917 formation of an African American musician union, necessary because all music unions functioned as "Whites-only," provided a place for the Black community to congregate, and for Black musicians to gain employment. Some of the biggest names in Jazz stopped in Buffalo during the club's heyday. The end of legal segregation in 1969 forced unions to merged, but the white-only attitudes remained in place, thus resulting in many musicians of color struggling again to find music-based jobs. Today, the building serves as both a museum and a jazz hall; it's the oldest such place still in operation in the U.S. 

Colored Musicians Club of Buffalo

Edward Nash was born in Occoquan, Virginia in 1868. His mother and father were freed slaves. They moved from Virginia to New York. &nbsp;At an early age Nash already he had numerous jobs. He was a Blacksmith, mason, and even a boatman. He was also involved in the church community and eventually became a minister at the age of 18. A few years later, he was appointed Minister of the Michigan Avenue Baptist Church at the age of 24 in 1894. He then moved his family to Buffalo where he became a prominent figure in the area.As the new Reverend at Michigan Avenue Baptist Church, Nash became acquainted with the area and joined the local chapter of the NAACP where he started working on political issues regarding the advancement and mistreatment of African Americans and the community. His contribution to the NAACP and other organizations helped shape his future. His positive influence in the community helped many African Americans to open up businesses in the area as well. He was respected by many including white political leaders such as the mayor. He also became involved with great African American leaders as well, including Booker T. Washington. Nash continued to work until his retirement. He helped to better the community and established great changes that are remembered today.He helped to establish the other branches of the NAACP. He was also a founding member of the Urban League and a member of the Western New York Association. His political involvement in the community did not go unnoticed. He received the Brotherhood Awards from the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1954. Other recognitions included an honorary membership into the American Federation of Musicians and a life membership in the N.A.A.C.P. Nash died in 1957. His wife continued to live in the home until her death in the 1980s. The home then became a museum in 2007.&nbsp;

This local history museum is dedicated to the experiences of African Americans in upstate New York. Reverend Edward Nash was a leading member of Buffalo's African American community and pastor of the Michigan Avenue Baptist Church. As a leading member of the Urban League, NAACP, and the Western New York Association, Nash worked with African American leaders and helped to establish several NAACP chapters throughout the region. The home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 and serves as a local history museum. The museum displays books, manuscripts, microfilm, and other items related to Nash's life.

Nash House Museum

In the 1870’s, the George N. Pierce Company produced common household items such as ice chests and birdcages. Pierce used his expertise in metal cage work to transition into the transportation field by manufacturing bicycles.As demand for improved bicycles grew, Pierce met high demands and industry innovation with the&nbsp;introduction of bicycle advancements such as the cushion frame and coaster brake. The George N. Pierce Company built a 75,000 square foot factory on Hanover and Prime Streets on Buffalo’s waterfront at Canalside. In 1901, the company produced its first, one single-cylinder automobile and also had a bicycle display at the Pan-American Exposition. The company continued manufacturing bicycles and motorcycles at this location until 1915.

The Buffalo Transportation/Pierce-Arrow Museum preserves the history of automobiles made in Western New York, particularly those made by the Pierce-Arrows company. Displays include Pierce-Arrow and Thomas Flyer cars from 1903 to 1960s. Guided tours highlight the transportation history of Western New York as told through the museum’s collection, the museum itself and how pieces were acquired. The museum was the dream of Buffalo-native James Sandoro, who started to have an interest in antique cars beginning at a young age. Over the years he collected many of the cars that are housed at the museum.

Buffalo Transportation/Pierce-Arrow Museum

Sibley &amp; Holmwood Candy Factory and Witkop &amp; Holmes Headquarters are significant late-nineteenth-century commercial buildings located adjacent to one another in downtown Buffalo. As a pair, they represent a time of transition for Buffalo's commercial (industrial) center away from waterways as railways and electricity changed the nature of how industries operated. Individually, they each possess a unique history that touches on changing retail needs, the first nationally-recognized woman architect, a landmark Supreme Court case, and the nation's burgeoning candy business around the turn-of-the-century.  Sibley &amp; Holmwood Candy Factory, 149 Swan Street (1896) From 1866 to 1888, the numbers of Buffalo confectionery businesses grew from fifteen to 126 retailers (and thirteen manufacturers). The explosion in confectionery companies mirrors that of the nation. From 1870 to 1890, the U.S. confectionery industry expanded from 949 to 2,921 producers with an attached gain in employment from 5,825 to 27,211.James Holmwood immigrated to Western New York shortly after his 1841 birth in Sussex, England. After working in retail for the first half of the 1860s, he took a job as a bookkeeper with Henry Hearne, one of Buffalo's renowned confectioners, where he met Frank Sibley. Sibley, a native of New York state, moved to Buffalo shortly after his birth in 1850. In 1868, Sibly joined Hearne's wholesale confectionery firm as a traveling salesman, before leaving in 1870 to work a similar position for John Benson's Son confectioners. In 1873, he joined Holmwood to form the Sibley &amp; Holmwood Confectionary Company. Sibley &amp; Holmwood started small with only eighteen employees, but rapid success turned the company into one of Buffalo's best-recognized confectionary candy manufacturers. The company's first dedicated factory opened in 1880 with such features as a steam-pan confectionery and four floors dedicated to manufacturing and packing. One year later, the company boasted of its 100 employees (including six traveling salesmen). Even a devastating fire that ravaged several blocks of Buffalo (including the candy factory) could not thwart the company's growth; the company employed two hundred workers and produced $200,000 worth of goods by 1895. The immense growth pushed Sibley &amp; Holmwood to construct a new factory, which opened in 1896 and survives today. Seizing on Buffalo's newfound ability to draw power from Niagra Falls, the 1896 factory, an exemplary late Gothic Revival commercial block, enjoyed electric power, which helped increased production. By 1898, the company employed 300 employees and enjoyed national recognition. The growing national presence of Sibley &amp; Holmwood allowed Frank Sibley in 1884 to serve as a founding member of the National Confectioners' Association in Chicago. As chair, from 1886-91, he helped the organization's membership grow from 78 to 221 companies. Sibley also served as the organization's vice-president in 1896 and was nominated for the presidency in 1899 (he declined). Three years later, in 1902, Sibley &amp; Holmwood merged with eighteen other companies from around America to form National Candy Company, Inc., based in New Jersey. In 1910, Sibley was elected president of the Cooper Paper Box. Co., a position he served until he died in 1921. The company remained in its historic factory until 1927.  Witkop &amp; Holmes Headquarters, 145 Swan (1901) The building enjoys a rich history that involves the nation's first professional female architect, the changing nature of the grocery business, and a 1910 Supreme Court case that courts cited as precedent well into the 1990s. Jacob Dold of the Dold Packing Company meatpacking company commissioned the construction of Witkop &amp; Holmes Headquarters. The meatpacking company started as a small butcher shop in 1860, and then rose to one of the nation's largest meatpacking firms. Although signs point to the possibility that Dold planned to move his business into the building, his company never occupied it. Weed &amp; Company, the city's oldest hardware company, served as the building's first tenant, using the building from 1901 to 1905. Witkop &amp; Holmes, founded as a home-delivery grocery and tea seller in 1888 by William Holmes and Theodore Witkop, moved into the building in 1906. Witkop &amp; Homes utilized the building as a warehouse and office space until it relocated in 1933. Witkop &amp; Holmes formed at a critical point in the transition of small grocery stores from local retailers of bulk products to more regionalized facilities offering specialized services. Mass production, telegraphs, railways, refrigeration, and advances in packaging allowed retailers of all kinds, including grocers, to transition from one-room stores to more extensive facilities that could efficiently ship goods. Indeed, many stories developed into chains. Thus, by the time the company moved out of the now-historic building in 1933 (even amid the Great Depression), it had expanded to Niagara Falls, Lockport, Batavia, and Jamestown. Also, during the 1920s, the one-small operation had grown not only in size but in what it offered; the company even sold furniture by 1930.  Though city customers could easily shop at stores, countryside residents required a day or two's travel to reach cities. Thus, home delivery remained a popular option, and Witkop &amp; Holmes never ceased in offering that service. In fact, the home delivery option served as the subject of a Supreme Court battle between Witkop &amp; Holmes vs. A&amp;P. Witkop &amp; Holmes filed a lawsuit against A&amp;P, alleging that the larger chain had illegally lured one of its drivers away from their company (which would also mean A&amp;P obtained the drivers' clients). The Supreme Court ruled in 1910 that A&amp;P infringed upon Witkop &amp; Holmes's property rights, speaking to a growing anti-chain sentiment coinciding with the nation's Progressive Era; courts routinely cited the case as a precedent throughout the twentieth century for corporate property right enforcement. Louise Bethune (of Bethune, Bethune, &amp; Fuchs) Louise Bethune's architectural firm Bethune, Bethune, &amp; Fuchs began in 1881 and designed a substantial number of buildings around Buffalo, including schools, police and fire departments, and residences. Despite never gaining national recognition for her regional architectural work, the firm grew into one of the most influential in Western New York. Although the vast majority of Bethune's work has been demolished, her most famous work remains a prominent feature of Buffalo's culture: the nationally-acclaimed Hotel Lafayette. Though less famous, The Witkop &amp; Holmes Headquarters survives as one of the Bethune's (and her firm's) few remaining extant commercial buildings.Moreover, her prominence as an advocate for women in architecture is well known. Bethune (1856-1913) became the first woman member of the Western Association of Architects (WAA) in 1888, followed by the well-established American Institute of Architects (AIA.) in 1889. (When the AIA absorbed the WAA in 1889, all WAA members became AIA fellows.). Bethune paved the way for other women to join the field, both by her example and passionate advocacy.; she promoted "Equal Remuneration for Equal Services." Indeed, she declined an invitation to compete in the design of the Woman's Building at Chicago's 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, citing the difference between the women's prize of $1,000 prize versus the men's of $10,000. Conclusion In the end, both structures stand as a monument to the early twentieth-century when wholesale grocery businesses expanded but still had to account for rural locations without easy access to cities. As well, the confectionery businesses flourished in the U.S. before the Great Depression. Moreover, one of the buildings exists today as one of the few reminders of the nation's first female architect. Bethune's passion lies not only in design but also in helping women achieve equal pay for equal work -- a fight that went on for decades (and in some respects, continues to this day).

Two adjacent city block buildings constructed in 1896 and 1901 mainly stood as the home to two flourishing companies, the Sibley & Holmwood Candy Factory and Witkop and Holmes Grocers. Louise Bethune, the first nationally-recognized female architect, designed the Witkop and Holmes Grocers building. Though both buildings now serve as residential and retail spaces, they survive today as one of the few remaining structures of a once bustling industrial and commercial center of Buffalo. When constructed, the buildings marked a change for Buffalo as electricity and railways allowed factories to operate in locations away from Lake Erie and the Erie Canal. 

Sibley and Holmwood Candy Factory and Witkop and Holmes Headquarters

St. Paul's Cathedral was built in the mid-19th century and is an exemplary American Gothic-Revival cathedral. The church hired Richard Upjohn to design the structure after he garnered acclaim for his design of New York City's Trinity Church (c. 1846) in New York City. His inspiration for St. Paul's came from Medieval European churches. An Episcopal preacher made a brief stay in 1802, and again in 1803, but the town did not see another Episcopal minister until winter of 1816 when the freshly ordained Rev. Samuel Johnston arrived. On February 10, 1817, Johnston organized St. Paul's Episcopal Church with twenty families serving as its congregation, many of whom engaged in missionary work with local Native Americans. Though the new church hoped to build a house of worship, sufficient funds proved tough to obtain. So, the group met first at local taverns. In 1819, helped by donations and a fund drive, the group began construction on its first church building, which they moved into in 1820. However, immediate fiscal trouble forced the church to sell its pew seats (akin to season tickets at modern sports or entertainment venues) to pay for its debts; they spent most of the first half of the decade struggling to maintain financial solvency. The 1825 opening of the Erie Canal not only benefited the town's business concerns, but the resultant population boom also helped grow the church. By 1828, they expanded their original church building. A new reverend (William Shelton) led the church by 1829 as the church enjoyed its growth. By the mid-1830s, the church again needed to expand. Still, committees failed to develop a solution, resulting in a portion of the congregation leaving to form a new church in 1836: Trinity Episcopal Church. St. Paul's remaining members also felt pressure from St. John's, whose members built a new chapel in downtown Buffalo in 1845. After a church split and competition from other churches, St. Paul's finally formed a committee that hired architect Richard Upjohn to design the historic Gothic structure.Besides hosting fundraisers, Rev Shelton again sold pews in the new facility, although he also kept some pews free, unlike with the first chapel. The building committee approved Upjohn's design in 1849 but worried considerably about his budget, a justifiable worry as he did exceed his budget by double. The ballooning costs delayed construction on such items as the bell tower, spires, porches, and gables. Although the building effectively opened in 1851, construction on many of its details continued until 1873. In 1888, ten years after UpJohn's death, a fire destroyed the church's interior. The church quickly commissioned Robert W. Gibson (1854-1927) to repair the damaged building. Like Upjohn, Gibson immigrated to the U.S. from England (1881) and had previously designed a church -- Albany's All Saints Cathedral -- before working on St. Paul's. Gibson managed to retain the original walls so that only minor changes to the exterior occurred during the renovation. (The freestanding tower with its 270-foot spire appears today as it did when UpJohn completed his work on the church.) In contrast, Gibson had to largely re-do the entire interior. After a year and a half of construction, the church reopened on January 3, 1890.

Construction of this Buffalo cathedral began in 1749 and serves a congregation that was established in 1817. The congregation secured its first permanent structure in 1820, and despite the grandeur of this Gothic cathedral, financial woes plagued the church during its first few years until Buffalo experienced a population and economic boom in the mid-nineteenth century. Designed by achitect Richard Upjohn with features inspired by European cathedrals of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth century, St. Paul's was built in stages owing to the cost of the under taking. The massive tower was completed in 1871. Richard Upjohn was also the architect of New York City’s Trinity Church. A devastating fire in 1888 forced the members to re-build its interior. Robert W. Gibson managed the renovation and the church re-opened early in 1890. 

St. Paul's Cathedral of Buffalo, New York

Buffalonian entrepreneur Hascal T. Taylor initiated the Prudential (or Guaranty) Building project, which he had intended to call the Taylor Building. He chose a central business location and planned to offer modern amenities to draw professional tenants, such as insurance agents and lawyers. However, Taylor passed away shortly before construction began. Thus, Guaranty Construction Company ultimately took on the project alone. When finished in 1896, it garnered attention for its avant-garde design, provided by the acclaimed Chicago-School architect Louis Sullivan. It survives as a reminder of a period of expansion for Buffalo in population, economics, and both commercial and residential construction. The completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 connected New York City to the Great Lakes via Buffalo, helping the city grow into the hub of Western New York. (The canal gave the city a boost, but the railways also arrived during the mid-nineteenth century.) Buffalo's population grew throughout the century, especially after the Civil War, rising from just more than 80,000 in 1860 to 352,387	by 1900. Buffalo ranked as the nation's eighth-largest city in 1900 and supported more than sixty millionaires, a veritable hot spot for Gilded-Age entrepreneurs. The Prudential Building arose during a period in the late nineteenth century when Buffalo enjoyed a healthy building boom in its downtown region, and one year before the city harnessed the power of its nearest organic machine, the Niagara Falls, to provide Buffalonians with abundant electricity. The building proved to be the last collaborative effort of the two renowned Chicago-School architects, Dankmar Adler and Louis H. Sullivan. Four years before completing the Prudential Building, they designed St. Louis' Wainwright Building in 1891, which effectively served as an ipso facto prototype for the Prudential Building. The Prudential Building focuses on ornamentation with its terra cotta exterior that covers two exterior facades. Sullivan chose to celebrate the building's verticality with noticeable piers between the windows that form powerful vertical lines that draw the viewer's eyes upward towards the dominant cornice. Sullivan also refrained from showcasing the steel as many did during the late nineteenth century. Instead, he aimed to connect the building with the natural world seamlessly. Inspiration for the ornamentation consisted of flowers and seed pods and tree branches, located at the top of the structure. The Prudential Building marked the start of a unique architectural style unique to the U.S. that heavily influenced Frank Lloyd Wright. He worked for Adler and Sullivan before starting his heralded career and routinely remarked on Sullivan's brilliance.Though it opened as the Guaranty Building, the Prudential Insurance company became its principal occupant by 1898. Thus, the building name changed to the Prudential Building. The building suffered during the Great Depression and deteriorated mightily throughout much of the twentieth-century. A fire in 1974 worsened the state of the building, damaging the interior. Investors purchased the building at an auction after the fire and planned to demolish the landmark, but that plan never came to fruition. In 1982, a $12 million restoration project gave the building new life. Its current occupant, the Hodgson Russ law firm, enjoys its own rich history, having operated in Buffalo since 1817. After purchasing the building in 2002, the law firm spearheaded the building's most aggressive renovation project (in several stages) which now includes an open-to-the-public interpretive center on the first floor that details the building's history.

The Guaranty Building, or Prudential Building, opened in 1896 during a time of population, construction, and economic expansion as the city grew to become the nation's eighth largest city. Chicago-school architects such as Louis Sullivan and Daniel Burnham headed many architectural projects in Buffalo, with the Prudential Building serving as one of Sullivan's last skyscraper projects. Its emphasis on ornamentation -- a staple of Sullivan's work -- included several natural-world features such as flowers and tree branches. Work such as the Prudential Building influenced Frank Lloyd Wright, a Sullivan's protégé as they both developed the Prairie School movement. 

Prudential Building (Guaranty Building)

The historic building (circa 1875) known as County and City Hall stood as Buffalo's tallest building for thirty-six years. When it opened, both the city and country governments maintained offices in the building. The city moved its offices to the thirty-two-story (and historic) Buffalo City Hall skyscraper (circa 1931) at Niagara Square. The landmark structure sits on a War of 1812 battle site, which later became a burial ground occupied by the deceased War of 1812 soldiers.During the War of 1812, American Colonel Cyrenius Chapin surrendered the village of Buffalo to British troops. Rather than peacefully take over the town, the British sought revenge for Americans burning down modern-day Niagara-on-the-Lake, located in (British) Ontario, Canada. Thus, the British burnt down Buffalo. Consequently, the village later turned the plot of land where the historic City and County Building stands into a burial ground for soldiers who perished during the War. As a result, before construction commenced on City and County Hall in 1871, local officials and descendants exhumed the bodies and moved them to new grounds. When the building opened in 1875, it operated as the home to both the city and county governments. The building featured three floors and a seven-story clock tower, and for thirty-six years it stood as the city's tallest building. Perhaps its most acclaimed resident was Grover Cleveland, with whom the city elected mayor in 1882; one can still view his office's location from Franklin street. He went on to become the only U.S. President to serve two non-consecutive terms as the 22nd and 24th U.S. President. Cleveland is not the only U.S. President connected to the building. Millard Fillmore began his political career at the City and County Hall. Additionally, the casket of William McKinley -- shot in Buffalo during the Pan-American Exposition in 1901 -- arrived at the building after a procession through town. By 1920, the city population had quadrupled, which pushed the city council to pursue funding and plans to build a new structure, though it took nine years to come to fruition. Construction started in 1929 on a new City Hall in Niagara Square. When that large structure opened in 1931, the city offices moved into the new facility. However, Erie County remained in the original building; the county paid roughly $1.5 million to take ownership. The building now houses Erie County court offices and records of the county clerk's office.

Constructed between 1871 and 1875 and formally dedicated in 1876, this former city and county government building is now home only to offices of Erie County officials. The building is located on land that proved significant during the War of 1812 and subsequent "burning of Buffalo." The land eventually became a cemetery before the bodies were exhumed to make way for this government building after the Civil War. The structure served both the city and county until 1931 when the city moved to the thirty-two-story Art Deco skyscraper in Niagara Square. 

Old County Hall, Erie County Hall

An ornate, stone storefront from the Buffalo Gas Light Company survives as a reminder of a time when the Erie canal allowed Buffalo to flourish, and when the city relied on coal before transforming the Niagara into hydroelectricity during the late 1890s. In 1848, Twenty-three years after the Erie Canal completion, the Buffalo Gas Light Company opened, located dually on Lake Erie and the Erie Canal. From both waterways, ships docked at the gas company and unloaded its coal. The building's facade stands as a monument to an era in U.S. history dominated by coal, industrialization, urbanization, class divide, and immigration. The Erie Canal opening had a profound effect on Buffalo in terms of a population, economic, and construction boom. Buffalo served as the western terminus of the Erie Canal and a midpoint between New York City and cities along the Great Lakes, including a growing Chicago during the nineteenth century. The canal led to increased shipping, which resulted in a marked increase in steamboat construction during the 1840s and '50s, just as the Buffalo Gas Light Company opened for business. However, by the 1870s, shipbuilders transitioned to creating ships specifically designed to navigate the canals and Great Lakes while also transporting coal and grain. So, to see the Buffalo Gas Light Company's remains is to get a glimpse of an era when waterways functioned as industrial highways and coal served as a coveted resource. Indeed, much like the remains of the Roman Empire survive in Rome today, which speaks to an entirely different era and culture, the Gas Light Company's remains symbolize a notable time in U.S. history when coal catalyzed a remarkable change in the U.S. economy. The prevalence of family farms, craftsmen, and small-scale enterprises of the mid-nineteenth century quickly gave way to giant corporations by the early twentieth century. The industrial growth led to a striking alteration in class structure marked by struggling (and often dying) coal miners and railroad builders versus wealthy industrialists -- the essence of the Gilded Age. The Gas Light Company took the coal and manufactured it into illuminating gas, which lit the city's streets, homes and, commercial buildings. Though most of the historic building has been razed, the facade that remains demonstrates the value Buffalo has attached to the once-prominent coal manufacturer. Buffalo's first architect, John H Selkirk, is credited for designed the Romanesque facade in 1859. The building's prominent feature consisted of a 250-foot façade, constructed of ashlar stone. Of course, several changes occurred since the building opened in 1848 (besides its razing). The shoreline's present location, which no longer hugs the building, exposes the degree to which the waterfront has been filled since the mid-nineteenth century. The building, too, demonstrates the changing cultural needs of a community, notably one famous for its early widespread electricity usage. Indeed, instead of relying on coal and the two nearby waterways, Buffalo reaped the benefits of the hydroelectric power generated near Niagara Falls. The historic building's remnants are now dwarfed by the modern building that functions as the headquarters of HealthNow New York; they purchased the land in 2004 and moved into the new building in 2007. Still, the contaminates of the coal manufacturing remain embedded in the soil underneath.

Buffalo Gas Light Company Works opened in 1848 on what was then the shores of the Erie Canal and Lake Erie prior to dredging and land reclamation that has changed the shape of the city. The plant turned coal into illuminating light used for lighting city streets, homes, and businesses. The plant's long history speaks to an era when coal and industry went hand-in-hand with commercial development as the nation urbanized and industrialized as it transitioned from the Civil War into the Gilded Age. Though the building was demolished in 2000, the West Genesee Street facade was preserved and the stone structure stands in the foreground against the modern HealthNow New York building, a physical manifestation of the transition from coal to health science as an economic driver.  

Buffalo Gas Light Company Works

The USS Sullivans is the most decorated ship at the museum. It earned nine battle stars while serving in some of the most intense naval battles of WWII in the Pacific theater. It belonged to the Fletcher class of destroyers, the most important destroyers in the war (destroyers protected larger ships and could attack submarines, surface vessels, and aircraft). The Sullivans was named in honor of the five Sullivans brothers who were killed when their ship, USS Juneau, was attacked and destroyed on November 22, 1942.&nbsp;&nbsp;

The Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, located on Buffalo's downtown waterfront, is the largest inland naval park in the country. Founded in 1976 opened to the public in 1979, the museum features several military ships, equipment and artifacts. The ships at the museum are: the destroyer USS Sullivan (a National Historic Landmark), the guided missile cruiser the USS Little Rock, and the submarine USS Croaker (all were built during WWII). Equipment includes fighter jets and helicopters. The museum features exhibits on military history and contains various artifacts and memorabilia. 

Highlights of Buffalo New York Driving Tour

F. Scott Fitzgerald Childhood Home

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources