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Fort McHenry was constructed between 1799 and 1802. It was in the shape of a five-pointed star, which was a popular design during the period. Each point of the star was visible from the point on either side and every area of land surrounding the fort could be covered with as few as five men. 
 
The walls of Fort McHenry and the buildings within were constructed of brick. There were four barracks to house the garrison consisting of the Commanding Officer's Quarters, Junior Officers' Quarters and two buildings for the enlisted men. A guardhouse stood next to the Commanding Officer's Quarters. Here, soldiers of the Fort McHenry Guard lived and worked, sometimes unruly soldiers were confined in the guardrooms. The Powder Magazine, where the gunpowder was stored, stood between the Commanding Officer's Quarters and the Junior Officers' Quarters. The magazine was of solid enough construction to protect the gunpowder from sparks, fire and explosion. 
 
During the 1830s, major improvements were made to the fort. Second stories were added to the barracks and two new guardhouses were built on each side of the Sally Port to replace the two earlier ones.

The Civil War of 1812-Click the link below for more information about this book.

The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict-Click the link below for more information about this book.

Fort McHenry is open daily and remains the most popular tourist location in Baltimore

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Fort McHenry is a star-shaped coastal fortification dating back to the Federal Era. The fort is best known for its role in the War of 1812. In September 1814, soldiers at the fort endured and successfully defended Baltimore Harbor from an attack by the British navy. Although British warships lined Chesapeake Bay and issued non-stop barrage upon the fort between September 13th and 14th of that year, the fort held and nearby ground troops likewise thwarted British plans to take the harbor. It was during this incredible bombardment of Fort McHenry that Francis Scott Key (an American detained on one of the British ships in the harbor) became inspired to write the poem that became the National Anthem. The lines within The Star-Spangled Banner refer to the attack, with the significance of the flag being that it gave proof that the fort had held and the British could not capture Baltimore. 

Fort McHenry

During the War of 1812, Great Britain struggled to defend her Canadian provinces. Desperate to alleviate pressure on the Canadian front, in early 1813 the British Royal Navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. The blockade curtailed American shipping from Baltimore and Norfolk. Beyond capturing merchant ships, the British began conducting raids on bay communities, beginning with Elkton and Havre de Grace [STOPS 1 & 2]. In the summer of 1813, the British attacked Norfolk [STOP 3] and Hampton [STOP 4], and even raided the Carolina coast [STOP 5]. By 1814, the British established at permanent base on Tangiers Island [STOP 6] and resumed raiding [STOP 7]. The campaign’s crescendo came in the autumn of 1814, when British forces successfully attacked and sacked Washington, D.C., where they burned the White House [STOPS 8 & 9]. The attempted to capture Baltimore, but were repulsed [STOPS 10, 11, & 12]. In the war’s final months, the British departed the Chesapeake for an ill-fated campaign against New Orleans.

The War of 1812 erupted in June 1812 with the United States’ declaration of war on Great Britain. The United States had grown tired of British interruptions of American shipping, the impressment of her sailors, and illicit British support for Native-American tribes in the West. While the United States believed war its only course of action, the declaration of war caught Great Britain off-guard. Embroiled in a titanic struggle with Napoleonic France, Britain had little men, ships, or resources to devote to a North American theater. British Canada lay particularly vulnerable. During the first year of the war, the United States repeatedly attempted to invade its northern neighbor, and although the American invasions were foiled, Britain desperately needed to alleviate pressure on Canada. Britain’s solution was to impose a blockade on the Chesapeake Bay. A blockade could offer many advantages; it would shut down two major American seaports (Baltimore and Norfolk), devastate the local economy, undercut war enthusiasm in the region, and threaten Washington. D.C. Great Britain hoped a blockade would divert American troops from the Canadian front. In February 1813, a British Royal Navy fleet under the command of Admiral John Borlase Warren appeared off the American coast and sealed of the Chesapeake Bay. Assisting Admiral Warren was Rear Admiral George Cockburn. An aggressive, competent commander, Cockburn used his force of Royal Navy sailors and marines to raid the Chesapeake coast. He intended to secure food and supplies needed for the Navy while destroying American military stores. If towns submitted to his raids, he would limit the damage of his raiders and pay for confiscated goods. Yet “should resistance be made, I shall consider [what I take] as a prize of war.”[1] On April 29, Rear Admiral Cockburn launched his first coastal raid in the Chesapeake Bay. Sailing up the Elk River along the northernmost stretch of the bay, British raiders in small boats landed in the early morning hours and advanced on Frenchtown. A small hamlet, Frenchtown resided along the main road between Philadelphia and Baltimore. The town contained a tavern, stables, and several storehouses, one of which was loaded with military supplies. The 150 British raiders under the command of Lieutenant George Westphal reached Frenchtown around 8 o’clock in the morning. The town wad defended by some hastily organized American militia and battery of light artillery. The Americans opened fire as the British approached. The veteran British troops carefully advanced frontally while sending a small force to flank the enemy. As one British sailor reported, “Jonathan [a British nickname for Americans] presently took to his heels, and left the town to our tender care.”[5] Angry at American resistance, the British burned Frenchtown and five merchant ships in the river; the total loss was estimated at $20,000-30,000. Frenchtown was never rebuilt. Having laid waste to Frenchtown, the British returned to their boats and advanced further up the Elk River towards Elkton. Unlike Frenchtown, however, Elkton proved more heavily defended. The town was protected by three earthen fortifications: Fort Defiance and Fort Frederick on the western riverbank and Fort Hollingsworth on the eastern side. Local citizens had raised $1,000 to construct these forts. Named for local planter Zebulon Hollingsworth, Fort Hollingsworth consisted of a 300-foot semi-circle earthwork, protected by five 6-pound artillery pieces; a deep trench guarded the front of the earthwork. Local militia officer Captain Henry Bennett commanded Fort Hollingsworth. Less is known abouts Fort Defiance and Frederick. The local investment in Elkton’s defenses paid off. As Lieutenant Westphal’s force sailed upriver towards Elkton on the afternoon of April 29, Fort Hollingsworth and Fort Defiance opened fire on the British. Deciding discretion was the better the part of valor, Lieutenant Westphal retreated down river rather than launch an assault against the American fortifications. The forts saved Elkton from Frenchtown’s fate. Following the failed attack on Elkton, the British found great success in a May 3 raid on Havre de Grace, Maryland, which they burned to the ground.Elkton was visited one more time by the British on July 12, 1814. Once again, a British force sailed up the Elk River to test the American defenses, and once again, the concentrated fire of American artillery drove the invaders away. As militia General Thomas Marsh Forman wrote to his wife of the skirmish, “We gave them in all eleven guns, so well directed, that they hastily put about and retreated down the river having fired but three at us, which did us no injury.”[3] The home of Zebulon Hollingsworth still stands today and is operated by the Historic Elk Landing Foundation. A 1965 state historical marker acknowledges the importance of Fort Hollingsworth in protecting Elkton (a nearby marker also denotes the history of Fort Defiance). A 2012 archaeological survey confirmed the exact location of Fort Hollingsworth on the grounds of the Hollingsworth home, but nothing of the fortifications remain.

In early 1813, the British Royal Navy imposed a blockade and began attacking coastal towns as part of the escalating War of 1812. On April 29, 1813, 150 British sailors and marines under Lieutenant George Westphal raided up the Elk River. They successfully assaulted and burned Frenchtown, then sailed upriver to attack Elkton. Elkton, however, was protected by several fortifications, including Fort Hollingsworth near Elk Landing. A 300-foot semi-circular earthwork armed with several artillery pieces, Maryland militia successfully defended Fort Hollingsworth and forced the British to retreat, thus saving Elkton. A similar British incursion a year later was likewise repulsed. Nothing remains of Fort Hollingsworth itself, although this historical marker acknowledges its importance in local history.

Fort Hollingsworth Historical Marker 

In the spring of 1813, Great Britain and the United States had been locked in conflict for over a year. As the War of 1812 raged on, Britain sought to divert American attention from the Canadian Theater (where the United States held a decisive numeric advantage) by blockading the Chesapeake Bay. The blockade was led by Admiral Sir John Warren. Admiral Warren quickly imposed a blockade in February 1813. His blockading fleet gobbled up American merchant ships and blockade runners. Although Warren was a somewhat conservative commander, satisfied with stunting the local maritime economy, he allowed his second in command Rear Admiral George Cockburn to raid the Chesapeake coastline. These raids have several objectives: to destroy any ships or valuable military supplies, to inflict economic damage and lower Americans’ support for the war, and to gather food and supplies needed by the local British fleet. An aggressive commander, Admiral Cockburn carried out his orders with gusto. In April 1813, Admiral Cockburn led his fleet into the uppermost reaches of the Chesapeake Bay. On April 29, a force of British sailors and marines under Lieutenant George Westphal struck at the small fortified hamlet of Frenchtown, Maryland. They scattered local militia and burnt everything in the town they couldn’t carry; Frenchtown ceased to exist. Turning up the Susquehanna River, the British hoped to pull a similar strike on Elkton but found it too well fortified. Instead, they sailed west, capturing American livestock on Spesutie Island. As the British plundered the island, they received fire from a small American shore battery at Havre de Grace, Maryland. The Americans’ attack on the British proved a mistake. Had they kept their guns silent, they may have gone unnoticed. Instead, Cockburn reported that he “observed Guns fired and American Colours hoisted” at Havre de Grace. As historian Stanley Quick points out, “Cockburn decided if the town [of Havre de Grace] was worth defending, it was also worth attacking.”[1] A force of 500 Royal Navy sailors and marines under Lieutenant Westphal was ordered to storm the town. The British raiders set off around midnight on May 3 in 16 boats, one of which carried Congreve rockets. A novel British invention, Congreve rockets were notoriously inaccurate, often doing little damage, but their piercing shriek as the flew threw the air often frightened inexperienced troops. Grace de Havre was protected by two artillery batteries near at Concord Point. The batteries were manned by untested militiamen of the 42nd Maryland Regiment, just under 200 men total. Lieutenant Westphal’s force approached the Americans’ position as morning rose, and his force opened fire on the militiamen. Congreve rockets screamed through the air. The American militia battery returned fire on the incoming attackers. A Congreve rocket, however, struck and killed a local militiaman in the head. Unnerved by his loss, the Americans began to retreat just as the British boats hit ashore. Lieutenant Westphal led the charge forward, followed by a small party of his men. As he approached the American artillery, only one American militiaman stood his ground: John O’Neill. An Irish immigrant to the United States, he stayed at his guns as his comrades fled. He later recalled, “The grape-shot flew thick about me. I loaded the gun myself without anyone to serve the vent, which you know is very dangerous, and fired her…I kept waving my hat to the militia, who had run away, to come to our assistance. But they proved cowardly and would not come back.”[5] Lieutenant Westphal approached O’Neill, demanding his surrender. When the Irish immigrant refused, Westphal fired his pistol, but it misfired. O’Neill fired his firearm in response, wounding Westphal in the hand. But Westphal managed to pull out a saber, bringing the intensely personal confrontation to an end. As O’Neill admitted, “an English officer on horseback, followed by the marines, rode up and took me with two muskets in my hand.”[5] The brave American was taken prisoner. Having routed the militia and taken Havre de Grace, the town was plundered and put to the torch. Admiral Cockburn’s policy called for destroying those towns that resisted British incursions, as Havre de Grace had done. The British plundered the town (British and American accounts disagree as to the extent of the looting) and set it alight, firing Congreve rockets into buildings to start the fire. Local citizen and historian Jared Sparks, there on the day of the attack, lamented “But the most distressing part of the scene was as the close of the day, when those who fled in the morning returned to witness the desolation of their homes and the ruin of all their possessions.”[1] The Niles’ Register, a popular Baltimore newspaper, declared “The ruins of Havre de Grace shall stand as a monument to British cruelty.”[5] Cockburn received a villainous reputation among Americans for his destruction of the town. As an Irish immigrant (a former subject of the King), John O’Neill was threatened with hanging. His 15-year old daughter Matilda O’Neill visited Admiral Cockburn’s ship, pleading for her father’s life and showing him her father’s militia commission. Determining O’Neill to be a legal soldier, he was released. Supposedly Cockburn also gave young Matilda a golden tortoiseshell snuff box as a token of her bravery. John O’Neill later served as the first keeper of the lighthouse built on Concord Point. Today, the site of the Concord Point battery is a local park. A state historical marker at the site acknowledges the British raid on Grace de Havre. At nearby Millard E. Tydings Memorial Park, a separate monument to John O’Neill’s bravery stands, complete with a War of 1812 cannon. In 2013, the city commemorated the bicentennial anniversary of the battle.

On May 3, 1813, a force of 500 British marines and sailors under Lieutenant George Westphal attacked American militia batteries at Havre de Grace. The attack came as part of Admiral George Cockburn's wider campaign of raids throughout the Chesapeake Bay, meant to undermine American morale in the War of 1812. The Maryland militiamen were overrun by the British after a short firefight, despite a heroic stand by local immigrant militiamen John O'Neill. The British subsequently sacked and burned much of the town. Today, the site of engagement is a local park, where a historical marker acknowledges the destructive 1813 raid on Havre de Grace.

Raid on Havre de Grace

In early 1813, the British Royal Navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. The blockade was a strategic one. The War of 1812 had begun a year prior, and American forces had launched repeated invasion of Canada. Although U.S. forces had been stymied thus far, the British had few troops with which to defend the Canadian frontier. The British hoped a blockade of the Chesapeake Bay would divert American soldiers away from the Canadian front, while simultaneously damagin the American economy and undercutting war enthusiasm. The Chesapeake blockade effectively ended maritime trade out of two of the United States biggest seaports: Baltimore, Maryland and Norfolk, Virginia. Beyond merely blockading these seaports, however, Great Britain considered the possibility of capturing them outright. In particular, Norfolk held a glittering prize: the USS Constellation, a powerful and well-built frigate trapped in the Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth. Yet cracking Norfolk would be a tall order. Three fortifications guarded the city: Craney Island, at the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and Forts Nelson and Norfolk upriver closer to the city. Three thousand Virginia militiamen garrisoned these posts. Also bolstering the American defenses were gunboats, placed alongside Craney Island guarding Elizabeth River. Brigadier General Robert B. Taylor commanded the American defenses. In June 1813, British commander Admiral John Warren determined to attack Norfolk. Having been recently reinforced by the 102nd Regiment of Foot (infantry), along with his own sailors and marine, Warren commanded 2,400 veteran soldiers, not to mention the powerful Royal Navy at his disposal. Warren determined to target Craney Island first. His plan called for a two-pronged attack. Although Craney Island was well-fortified on its ocean-front side, the landward rear of the island was more vulnerable. Warren devised a flank attack; Colonel Thomas Beckwith would land 1,500 men on the mainland just west of Craney Island, near a farm owned by the Wise family. They would then move southeast, crossing Wise Creek and then fording the Elizabeth River to attack Craney Island from the rear. As Beckwith flanked the enemy, a second British force would conduct a frontal assault. In the early morning hours of June 22, 1813, 1,500 Colonel Beckwith’s regulars and marines loaded into their barges from the British fleet offshore and headed for the coast. There were over 700 American militia on Craney Island, along with artillery guns hauled over by the Constellation's crew; they were on alert. As the British regulars landed on the mainland to their west, the Americans quickly spotted them moving through the woods. They formed into line of battle on the island’s westward shore, and American artillery opened fire on the British. The British plans quickly went awry. Under fire from American artillery, the British discovered that Wise Creek wasn’t fordable, neither was the Elizabeth River. The British were stuck. Col. Beckwith managed to return the enemy’s fire with a battery of Congreve rockets; although not particularly accurate, the rockets made a loud shriek while in the air and often undermined enemy morale. The rockets couldn’t overpower the American guns, however, and the militia’s artillery fire took its toll as the British milled about ineffectually on the mainland.While the flank attack stalled, the frontal assault went ahead around 11:00 a.m. The British here fared even worse than Col. Beckwith’s men. As they approached Craney Island, the British came under intense artillery fire. Many of the barges got stuck on shallow mudflats three hundred yards in front of the island. Soldiers who bailed from the sitting barges found themselves mired in mud. Unable to advance and literally stuck in the mud, those barges that were still afloat collected survivors and sailed back towards the fleet. With the frontal assault’s failure, Admiral Warren ordered Col. Beckwith’s force to retreat as well. The Battle of Craney Island proved a serious defeat for the British forces in the Chesapeake Bay. They suffered sixteen killed and sixty-two wounded or missing. The American forces, ensconced behind their fortifications with stout artillery support, suffered no casualties at all. The successful defense of the island guaranteed the safety of Norfolk and the USS Constellation. Today, a historical marker acknowledges the importance of the Battle of Craney Island to local history.

During the War of 1812, the British Royal Navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. Determined to capture the American port of Norfolk, which harbored the American frigate USS Constellation, British forces under Admiral John Warren attacked the American defenses at Craney Island on June 22, 1813. A plan called for two attacks: a flanking maneuver from the west and and a frontal, amphibious assault on the island. Both attacks floundered: the flanking attack couldn't ford the Elizabeth River to access the island, while the frontal assault became mired in mud flats to the island's front. The failed attack cost the British 78 casualties, while the American suffered none. Norfolk, and the USS Constellation, were saved. A historical marker in Portsmouth acknowledges the importance of Craney Island in history.

Battle of Craney Island

In early 1813, the British Royal Navy arrived in the Chesapeake Bay. The War of 1812 was less than a year old, and Great Britain hoped that by imposing a blockade on the Chesapeake, they could damage the local economy, undercut American morale, and divert American resources from the vulnerable Canadian front. On June 23, 1813, British commander Rear Admiral John Warren took the offensive and attacked Craney Island, which protected Norfolk. The attack went disastrously awry; the British completely failed to capture Norfolk and suffered nearly 80 killed and wounded along the way. The failed attack on Norfolk embarrassed Admiral Warren and his British forces. Almost immediately following the defeat, Admiral Warren and his subordinate commanders agreed to attack Hampton, a small village across the James River. Hampton reportedly held an American militia encampment, but the British may simply have desired immediate redress for the Norfolk disaster. Hampton was indeed guarded by local militia, just under 450 Virginians and seven artillery pieces under the command of Major Stapleton Crutchfield. Expecting an amphibious assault from the British via the James River, Major Stapleton ordered his inexperienced militia to construct earthworks facing the junction of James River and Hampton Creek on the grounds of ironically-named Little England, a local plantation home. The British planned a two-prong assault against the Virginia militia. A British flotilla under Rear Admiral George Cockburn would advance against directly against the militia’s riverside batteries. This demonstration would distract the Americans while a force of 2,600 sailors, marines, and infantry under Colonel Thomas Sidney Beckwith landed north of the Americans’ position and attack from the rear. The trapped Americans would be destroyed or forces to surrender. Colonel Beckwith’s landing party came ashore around 3:30 a.m. on June 25, 1813. As his men disembarked and began marching inland towards the Virginians encampment, the vanguard consisted of Chasseurs Britanniques, also known as the Company of Independent Foreigners. This grandly named outfit actually consisted of several hundred French soldiers taken prisoner by the British in Europe. Rather than prison, they agreed to serve in the British army in America, and these from soldiers of Napoleon now half-heartedly led the British advance into the Virginia woods. As Beckwith’s force crept towards the American rear, Admiral Cockburn’s flotilla noisily engaged in an artillery duel with Major Crutchfield’s artillery. Although pickets warned Crutchfield that a British force had landed north of his position, he was unsure which British attack constituted the main assault. Crutchfield ordered a small force under Captain Richard Servant to probe the advancing British to the north. Captain Servant’s Virginia riflemen stumbled onto the advance of the Chasseurs Britanniques. A sharp firefight ensued the early morning darkness. As an American militia officer recounted, “They [the Chasseurs] then gave the most incessant fire that I ever heard in my life.”[1] The gunfire to his north convinced Major Crutchfield the main British attack was not the fleet to his front, but rather the British force to his rear, and he ordered his men to abandon their riverside trenches and advance quickly north to meet the enemy. A little after 6 a.m., the American militia encountered the main British force in a cornfield at the intersection Celey’s and Yorktown Roads. The brave Americans formed into line of battle and advanced, but they were met with a withering blast of British artillery fire. They were also met with rocket fire, as the British employed Congreve rockets during the Chesapeake Campaign. Although notoriously inaccurate, the piercing shriek of the rockets often unnerved inexperienced troops, as it did with Americans. The Americans attempted one more advance but broke and fled in the face of the well-directly British fire. Major Crutchfield managed to secure the help of Captain Servant’s riflemen and two other militia companies in a fighting retreat. Although unable to stop the British advance towards Hampton, Crutchfield’s rearguard action allowed many of his panicked militiamen to escape British clutches. By 7:30 a.m., the fight for Hampton was over. The Virginia militia had been decisively defeated and scattered, suffering 7 killed, 12 wounded, and 11 missing. The British reported 5 dead, 33 wounded, and 10 missing; the British casualties are a testament to the initial stoutness of the American defense. The British policy in the Chesapeake was to destroy any town that resisted the advance of the British, and Hampton was to be no exception. The sack of Hampton, however, proved especially brutal. The British plundered and burned the town, and several reports indicated the French Chasseurs were allowed to run wild. Houses and business were looted and burned, including St. John’s Episcopal Church. Citizens were robbed of belongings. Reports of rape and murder emerged. British officer Lieutenant Colonel Charles Napier confessed that “Every horror was committed with impunity, rape, murder, pillage; and not a man was punished.”[1] News of Hampton’s sacking spread quickly. Virginia militia commander Brigadier General Robert Taylor reported, “I have heard with grief and astonishment of the excesses to both property and persons committed by the land troops who took possession of Hampton.”[2] American newspapers reported on the terrible incident across the country. The sacking of Hampton undid the value of capturing the town in the first place; anger at the town’s sacking bolstered resistance to the British. As historian Stanley Quick notes, “The Battle of Hampton had no real importance tactically, but its strategic implications would haunt the British…the United States turned an insignificant defeat into a significant victory.”[1] Today, a state historical marker acknowledges the Battle of Hampton and the subsequent sacking of the town in June 1813. The local Hampton History Museum has also worked to interpret the War of 1812 in the Chesapeake with various exhibits and events. Included in the Museum's holdings is the "Rutherford Rifle," a rifle crafted by Archibald Rutherford believed to have been used by Virginia militia at the Battle of Hampton.

In late June 1813, during the War of 1812, British forces blockading the Chesapeake Bay raided the small village of Hampton. Coming off a disastrous defeat at Norfolk, the British hoped to secure an easy victory over several hundred Virginia militia near Hampton. On June 25, the British attacked the Virginia militia via both a naval bombardment and a land attack from the rear. The American militia were overwhelmed by British firepower and numbers and driven from the field in defeat. Following the battle, the British looted and burned much of Hampton, murdering and raping several citizens. Although the British won the battle, the atrocities carried out in sacking Hampton damaged their reputation and unified local American resistance to the British invaders.

Battle of Hampton (1812)

In February 1813, the British Royal Navy arrived in the Chesapeake Bay. With war erupting against the United States the year prior, the British hoped to blockade the Chesapeake, bottling up American shipping and shutting down two major ports in Baltimore and Norfolk. The British blockade proved successful; so successful in fact that American merchants, unable to leave Norfolk harbor, began shipping their goods down to the North Carolina coast. Dotted with countless islands and inlets, the Carolina coast offered American privateers a perfect refuge from the British blockade. Ocracoke and Portsmouth in particular became hubs for blockade runners. The British determined to strike at Ocracoke and Portsmouth and shut down American privateering along the upper Carolina coast. In the dark evening of July 11-12, 1813, Rear Admiral George Cockburn sailed into Ocracoke Inlet; Ocracoke Island lay to the east, and Portsmouth Island just to the west. Cockburn’s force consisted of the 74-gun ship of the line Sceptre, the brig Conflict, and a number of troopships and tenders. Aboard the ships were nearly 800 Royal Marines and regular infantry. The inlet sheltered three American ships: the Anaconda, the Atlas, and the revenue cutter Mercury. Although the Mercury managed to slip away upon the British approach, the skeleton crews of the Anaconda and Atlas prepared to defend their ships. British boarding parties launched in small boats and slowly made their way through the rough waters of the inlet in the darkness. One British officer complained, “In landing at Ocracoke we nearly all drowned.”[1] As the British approached the harbor, the American ships opened fire. With too few crew and firing into the darkness, the Americans proved unable repulse the British advance. As the British neared, the crews abandoned ships. The crew of the Atlas even fired a cannon into the ship’s bottom in hopes of sinking her. The British, however, managed to secure and salvage both ships; they served with the British fleet through the remainder of the Chesapeake Campaign. Having overcome the paltry American resistance, the British landed on Ocracoke Island. Accounts of what happened next conflict. Admiral Cockburn reported that he confiscated and paid for local livestock and stripped the town of military stores. Americans, however, claimed the British thoroughly sacked the island. “There was the most wanton, cruel and savage like destruction of property I have ever witnessed,” according to one American official.[1] The British occupied the island for until July 16 before setting sail back to the Chesapeake Bay. Ultimately, the British incursion into Carolina achieved relatively little. Although the British captured two new ships, without permanently stationing themselves off the Carolina coast there was little to prevent the Americans from continue to use Ocracoke and Portsmouth as a viable trading alternative to Norfolk. Although the British expedition caused considerable panic in North Carolina, the British never returned, and Americans continued to use the Carolina coast for shipping until war’s end. A state historical marker on the North Carolina mainland denotes the 1813 British incursion into the Carolina coast.

During the War of 1812, the British Royal Navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. No longer able to utilize the ports of Baltimore or Norfolk, American merchants began shipping goods out of the North Carolina coast. Determined to stop this trade, in July 1813 a British expeditionary force struck at Ocracoke Inlet. The British overwhelmed two American merchant ships and subsequently pillaged much of Ocracoke Island before returning to the Chesapeake. Although the British incursion caused a considerable stir, it did not permanently end American use of Ocracoke and Portsmouth as shipping ports. A historical marker on the mainland acknowledges the British attack on the region.

British Invasion of Ocracoke Historical Marker

The United States declared war on Great Britain in 1812 with ambitious goals. The young nation hoped to decisively defeat Native-American and British intrigues in the West, put an end to British depredations against American ships on the high seas, and perhaps even conquer Canada to the north. Focused on defeating Napoleonic France in Europe, the British could afford relatively little resources to a North American front. The time felt ripe for the United States to assert its dominance. After two years of fighting, the United States instead found itself struggling to protect its own borders. Nowhere was this more evident than in the Chesapeake Bay, where the British Royal Navy effectively blockaded the coast and curtailed American shipping. The blockade kept the American ports of Baltimore, MD and Norfolk, VA closed and threatened the security of the nation’s capital along the Potomac River, Washington D.C. By the spring of 1814, Britain had grown tired and angry with the American war. Having defeated Napoleon (at least for the moment), Britain was able to turn its attention and supplies to North America. Fueling British anger were destructive American raids on Canada, notably the raid on Port Dover, Ontario. Hoping to punish the Americans, the British determined to step up their activities in the Chesapeake. With this new strategy came a new commander: Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane, who assumed command of all Royal Navy activities in North America. An ambitious and aggressive commander, Cochrane’s will in the Chesapeake would be carried out by his subordinate, Rear Admiral George Cockburn. As Cochrane ordered Cockburn in April 1814: “You are at perfect liberty as soon as you can muster a sufficient force to act with the utmost Hostility against the shores of the United States…Their sea port towns laid in ashes and country wasted will be some sort of retaliation for their savage conduct in Canada.”[1] The logistical hub for the Royal Navy’s activities in Chesapeake Bay was Tangier Island. A small island in the center of the Chesapeake, it offered a deep water port for the Royal Navy, with easy access to both the Upper and Lower Bays. By early 1814, the island served as the British base for its operations in the Chesapeake, as Admiral Cockburn began raiding American towns in the Chesapeake Bay with his fleet and 3,000 veteran infantrymen brought as reinforcements from Europe. Yet Tangier Island also served as a safe harbor for Black Americans. Hoping to weaken the American economy and morale while bolstering their own ranks, Britain welcomed runaway slaves. The runaway slaves were afforded freedom and transportation to either Nova Scotia or Trinidad. The men were also given the opportunity to enlist in the British Navy. Admiral Cockburn raised and recruited a small Corps of Colonial Marines. Nicknamed “Blue Jackets” for their uniforms, these Black soldiers quickly proved their bravery and worth. As Admiral Cockburn lauded of the Black Marines, “they have induced me to alter the bad opinion I had of their whole Race and I now really believe these, we are training, will neither show want of zeal or courage when employed by us in attacking their old masters.”[1] Several hundred Black Colonial Marines served alongside British forces during the Chesapeake Campaign. To protect their Tangier Island base, the Black and white British soldiers, sailors, and marines constructed Fort Albion. Relatively little is known about the fort's layout. The fort did include a barracks, hospital, and church. It also contained a number of family homes and gardens, which housed both soldiers and the several hundred Black refugees who fled to Tangier Island. Some refugees stayed on the island, while others were transported to the Caribbean. Fort Albion thus protected both British forces and Black American refugees alike. The British Chesapeake Campaign ultimately culminated in the successful capture of Washington, D.C. (including the burning of the White House) and the unsuccessful attack on Fort McHenry outside Baltimore (where “our flag was still there”). Shortly thereafter, peace was secured between the United States and Great Britain via the Treaty of Ghent in February 1815. Tangier Island and Fort Albion were evacuated on March 21, 1815. The fort’s structures were burned. Admiral Cockburn declared that “on no account [is] a Single Negro [to] be left, except by his own request,” ensuring the continued freedom of the Colonial Marines and Black refugees from whom Tangier and Albion had been a refuge for liberty.[3] Rising seas and erosion have swallowed up the land where Fort Albion once stood. The only reminder of Fort Albion today on Tangier Island is a state historical marker on Main Ridge Road.

Built in the spring of 1814, Fort Albion protected the British naval base on Tangier Island in the Chesapeake Bay during the War of 1812. Tangier Island also served as a refuge for Black runaway slaves, who sought freedom under British rule; some Blacks even enlisted in the Corps of Colonial Marines. Fort Albion thus protected and housed both British soldiers, sailors, marines, and refugee runaways. The fort consisted of a barracks, hospital, church, and various homes. Upon the War of 1812's conclusion in early 1815, the fort was burned by evacuating British forces (who offered safety to all Black refugees on the island). Today, the fort's original location is likely underwater, but a state historical marker acknowledges the importance of Fort Albion and Tangier Island within local history.

Fort Albion

During the War of 1812, Great Britain blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. The blockade led to the capture of dozens of American merchant ships and privateers, devastated the local economy (including the ports of Norfolk and Baltimore), and undercut war enthusiasm. It also threatened the American capital. By the autumn of 1814, British forces in the Chesapeake had been reinforced by several thousand veteran infantrymen from Europe; with a strong force on hand, the British prepared to attack Washington, D.C. and Baltimore. In order to confuse United States forces and prevent reinforcements from reaching Baltimore or Washington, the British planned a diversionary attack against Maryland’s Eastern Shore. Command of the diversionary expedition was given to Captain Peter Parker, commander of the HMS Menelaus, a powerful 38-gun frigate. With the Menelaus and over 100 sailors and marines at his command, Parker set out to wreak havoc. As midshipman Frederick Chamier recalled, “We were dispatched from the squadron in order to draw the attention of the American forces form Baltimore…Our duty consisted in an eternal annoyance of the enemy, and therefore night and day we were employed in offensive operations.”[7] Parker quickly began burning homes (or Chamier put it, we “were most consummately skilled in the art of house-burning”). During one such raid, Parker’s men liberated several Americans slaves (who often fled to the British in search of freedom); one slave alerted Parker to a nearby militia camp at Bel Air (now the town of Fairlee). Parker determined to strike the camp immediately, and on the evening of August 30, 1814, he set out with 140 marines and sailors. The small American camp housed 174 soldiers of the 21st Maryland Militia Regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Philip Reed, a Revolutionary War veteran. Sometime after 10 p.m., American pickets discovered the advancing British and opened fire. The picket’s guns alerted the American militia. Initially believing the British force intended to destroy more homes, Reed reported that “it was quickly discovered that the blow was aimed for our camp.”[5] The militia laid an ambush. Knowing the British to be marching along Georgetown Road, Lt. Col. Reed arranged most of his men in a line of battle on a slight ridge astride the road, facing an open field owned by local farmer Isaac Caulk. The center of his line was occupied with several artillery pieces. To his front, Reed posted militiamen who would wait in ambush; armed with rifles rather than smoothbore muskets, this advance guard could inflict accurate fire on the enemy. Around 1 a.m. under the light of the moon, the British column tramped into Reed’s advance skirmish line. The American riflemen opened fire on the unsuspecting British, quickly inflicting several casualties. Having sprung their ambush, the riflemen then began to fall back on Reed’s main line. Thinking the Marylanders to be retreating, the angry British charged forward. Instead, they surged into the open field in front of the American’s main line. The militia opened a devastating fire, and any British hopes of a quick victory were dashed. Midshipman Chamier confessed, “the fire was too hot, and much to fatally directed to allow us to continue our charge along the road.”[7] Facing a well-positioned enemy, with greater numbers and abundant artillery support, Parker determined to flank the American position (Chamier felt his countrymen should simply have retreated). Captain Parker led an flanking party towards the American left, while a party of sailors attacked the American right. Fortunately for the British, although the Americans enjoyed a stronger position and numbers, they were running short of ammunition; the artillery had run out of rounds entirely. Lt. Col. Reed ordered his troops to fall back in orderly fashion. Yet despite this favorable chance of luck, the British advance was halted by the mortal wounding of Captain Parker. “The whole animation of the party died when he drooped,” Chamier recounted.[7] Dying quickly of blood loss, Parker stated, “I fear they have done me…you had better retreat, for the boats are a long way off.”[5] On the cusp of victory, Parker’s death forced the British to retire. The Battle of Caulk’s Field resulted in 14 British dead and 27 wounded; the Americans suffered only 1 killed, 3 wounded. The victory energized the local militia and raised morale. However it had little impact on the wider course of the Chesapeake Campaign. A week earlier, an American army had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Bladensburg, which resulted in the British sacking of Washington, D.C. In the weeks following the battle, the British would prove unable to repeat their performance at Baltimore, saved by Fort McHenry (where “the flag was still there”). An uncommon American victory in the Chesapeake Bay (and a rare night battle), the Caulk’s Field battlefield has been well preserved (in part due to its rural location) and can be visited. In 1902, the Baltimore Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution placed a monument at Caulk’s Field to the American victory, and a more recent state historical marker also stands near the site. Archeological work in the 2010s uncovered over 700 artifacts and suggested the British suffered most of their casualties in Isaac Caulk’s field itself. In 2014, for its 200th anniversary, a reenactment of the battle was held in Fairlee.

In August 1814, as a British army advanced on Washington, D.C., a small force of British marines and sailors under Captain Peter Parker terrorized Maryland's Eastern Shore. Their raids were designed to prevent local militia from reinforcing Washington or Baltimore. On the night of August 30-31, Parker's force clashed with Lieutenant Colonel Philip Reed's Maryland militia in a rare night battle at Caulk's Field. Initially ambushed by American riflemen, the British rallied and attempted to flank the American force. Although the U.S. militia was running low on ammunition, the mortal wounding of Captain Parker ended the British assault and forced their retreat. A rare American victory during the Chesapeake campaign, the battlefield is today preserved and commemorated by several historical markers.

Battle of Caulk's Field

In the early 19th century, the young United States once again found itself locked in conflict with Great Britain. Just a few decades after achieving independence in 1783, the United States declared war on Britain again in 1812. The War of 1812 was fought for many reasons, but the United States entered the war with a few clear objectives: defeating Native-Americans and their British allies on the frontier, conquering British-held Canada, and putting an end to British attacks on American shipping. American ambitions outweighed their capabilities. Although Americans were able to defeat Native-Americans in the West, they repeatedly failed in their attempts to conquer Canada. Worse, the British Navy blockaded and raided much of the Atlantic Coast, including the Chesapeake Bay. Despite their inability to make progress, the United States benefited from Great Britain's larger war with Napoleonic France, which kept Britain preoccupied and prevented it from devoting many men or materials to the American conflict. The strategic landscape changed in 1814, when European allies defeated Napoleonic France. No longer at war with France, Great Britain suddenly had spare troops, ships, and materials to send to North America. In the summer of 1814, British reinforcements sailed for Chesapeake Bay. The force included a sizable fleet commanded by Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn, and a 4,000 man invasion force led by Major General Robert Ross. Though small in number, the British regulars were hardened veterans, having proved themselves on battlefields across Europe. Hoping to strike at American port towns to alleviate pressure on British Canada, the British determined to attack the under-defended United States capital Washington, D.C. In late August, British troops sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and landed along the Patuxent River not far from Washington D.C. The defense of the United States capital rested in the hands of Brigadier General William Winder; unfortunately for the U.S., Winder proved an indecisive and poor commander. Winder's forces were stretched out between Washington and Baltimore, and as the British approached Washingotn, Winder scrambled to compose a force to oppose them. He managed to scrape together 7,000 men. Despite their numbers, however, the majority of the American force was comprised of untrained, untested militia, along with a small force of regulars and sailors. The two forces clashed at Bladensburg, a small village northeast of Washington, D.C. along the East Branch of the Potomac River (and today a suburb). American forces were arrayed in defensive positions on high ground to the west side of the East Branch, opposite the town. Although they enjoyed a strong position, U.S. forces were too spread out to support each other. British forces attacked straight ahead, enduring artillery fire and crossing the lone bridge in Bladensburg. American forces managed to inflict heavy casualties initially, but as British soldiers poured across the river, U.S. forces were overwhelmed and panicked. Their retreat turned into a rout, and as one onlooker noted, "the militia ran like sheep chased by dogs."[3] Commodore Joseph Barney's force of sailors and marines proved tough to crack; as Admiral Cockburn noted, "They have given us the only fighting we have had."[5] The embarrassing American retreat was dubbed the "Bladensburg Races." Recalling the battle, British officer Robert Gleig put it bluntly: "No troops could behave worse than they [the Americans] did. The skirmishers were driven in as soon as attacked, the first line gave way without offering the slightest resistance, and the left of the main body was broken within half an hour after it was seriously engaged."[4] The American forces continued their retreat beyond Washington, D.C. The British advanced on the capital slowly. Along their march, African-American slaves ran to British lines in hopes of finding freedom (there were actually a small number of African-American "Colonial Marines" included among the British forces.) On the evening of August 24, British troops entered the United States capital. They set fire to the President's House, Capitol, Treasury, and other government buildings, but they largely avoided burning private property. Having succeeded in routing the U.S. army and sacking the capital, British forces returned to the safety of their ships. They moved on to strike Baltimore in September but were stymied by Fort McHenry, whose valiant defense gave the United States its national anthem. Today, the growth of D.C.'s suburbs have overrun much of the Bladensburg battlefield. Efforts were made in 2012 during the bicentennial to commemorate the battle. The Bladensburg Waterfront Park, purchased for $75,000, preserves the stretch of East Branch where British soldiers crossed the river under fire. A few miles away at the Bladensburg Balloon Park, a $375,000 memorial crafted by Joanna Blake was unveiled in 2014. The memorial honors the American defenders at Bladensburg and depicts Commodore Joshua Barney and several of his men, including former slave Charles Ball who fought with the marines.

In the early 19th century, the United States and Britain clashed in North America during the War of 1812. Hoping to strike a decisive blow, in 1814 the British landed a 4,000 man force along the Patuxent River in Maryland with the goal of capturing the U.S. capital at Washington, D.C. Opposing the British were approximately 7,000 Americans, mostly untested militiamen. The two armies collided at Bladensburg, Maryland on August 24, 1814. Although the Americans inflicted heavy casualties during the initial British advance, they were quickly routed; the debacle became known as the "Bladensburg Races." As a consequence of U.S. defeat, British forces marched on Washington, D.C. and burned much of the nation's capital. The defeat at Bladensburg and sacking of Washington constituted an embarrassing and dark episode for the United States during the War of 1812.

Battle of Bladensburg

French architect Pierre L'Enfant created the blueprint for the federal city that became Washington D.C., but he and President George Washington held very different views about the design for what would later be known as The White House. L'Enfant's 1791 plan for the city was based around a central palace that mirrored the grandeur of the dwellings of European heads of state. Believing that America's Executive Mansion should better reflect republican principles, Washington dismissed L'Enfant's plan and held a design competition.Hoban, an Irish-born and architect who was living in Charleston, South Carolina,&nbsp;won the competition to create the Executive Mansion. Hoban's inspiration for the house was drawn from an Anglo-Irish villa called the Leinster House in Dublin. A second competition was held to determine the design of the nation's capitol. It is&nbsp;believed that Thomas Jefferson, who designed his own home of Monticello,&nbsp;entered the competition&nbsp;under a pseudonym. If this is the case, Jefferson's designs were not selected in either competition.&nbsp;Construction of the President's home began in 1792. Attempts to&nbsp;recruit skilled workers to the project proved difficult because the capitol was located in a sparsely-settled area. As a result, most of the labor was performed by slaves and&nbsp;free men of color who had fewer employment options. Stonemasons and carpenters trained enslaved people to perform necessary tasks to assist the small number of skilled laborers who joined the project. Slaves also built many of the other buildings throughout the new federal city. According to a letter from First Lady Abigail Adams, who lived in the Executive Mansion while it was being completed, the slaves who worked on the home were "half fed, and destitute of cloathing." She opined that the work could be performed more&nbsp;efficiently&nbsp;by free laborers from New England.&nbsp; Jefferson defeated Adams in November, 1880, the same month that Abigail Adams wrote about the failure to complete the Executive Mansion. While President, Jefferson personally oversaw some of the construction and ordered&nbsp;several structural changes with the help of&nbsp;architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe. Jefferson's changes&nbsp;included the addition of terrace-pavilions on either side of the main building and single-story wings for storage. In addition to replacing the slate roof with one of sheet iron, Jefferson further improved the grounds by landscaping them in a picturesque manner.&nbsp;The British set the mansion on fire&nbsp;during the War of 1812. James Madison was President at the time and his wife, Dolly Madison, famously saved artwork including a portrait of George Washington. Despite the British efforts to destroy the building, mother nature had other plans. As British sought shelter from a&nbsp;summer thunderstorm, their fire was extinguished. The interior of the White House had been destroyed, but the&nbsp;outside walls and the interior brick walls survived. Madison brought Hoban back to restore the mansion, a process&nbsp;which took three years. It was during this period of&nbsp;reconstruction that the house was painted white. Hoban later added the South and North Porticos, using a similar design that had been created by Benjamin&nbsp;Latrobe.Expansion and further alterations were made when President Theodore Roosevelt declared the house unsafe to inhabit and had the original building remodeled. Roosevelt desire to separate his workspace from his family life and did so by making the third-story attic into habitable rooms and adding the Executive Office wing and the East Gallery. In 1909, architect Nathan C. Wyeth extended the West Wing,&nbsp;adding the well-known Oval Office, the President's formal workspace. Although referred to as "The White House"&nbsp;since the time of its construction when its exterior walls were covered with protective whitewash,&nbsp;President Theodore Roosevelt made "The White House"&nbsp;the mansion's official name in 1901.&nbsp;In the mid-twentieth century, the White House underwent
several&nbsp;renovations to improve its structural soundness and historic
appearance. In 1949-1951, the&nbsp;building was determined unsafe after years
of&nbsp;maintenance neglect. The restoration involved replacing the original
frame and paneling with steel, along with adding a balcony to the South
Portico. In the meantime, President Harry Truman relocated to the
neighboring&nbsp;Blair House, also known as the President's Guest House. These
decades also saw increased security and technological integration. Truman
welcomed news crews to the White House in the 1950s after the restoration was
complete. When John F. and Jacqueline Kennedy moved into the White House in
1961, the stylish and artistically-minded First Lady refurbished the living
quarters and publicly accessible spaces with antique furniture, art, and
artifacts. She developed a Fine Arts Committee to collect art and Americana and
an advisory committee that drafted a treatise on the restoration philosophy.
The White House, according to these plans, was both a symbol and functional
structure with a “living” character. They chose décor to reflect a multitude of
time periods and administrations. Later that year, the White House was declared
a museum and Lorraine Waxman Pearce was hired as the first curator of its
collections and history. Jacqueline Kennedy also brought this history to the
public through magazine articles and a televised tour of the White House in
1962. Lyndon Johnson’s administration continued this work by establishing the Committee
for the Preservation of the White House to advise historical preservation,
collections acquisitions, and design.




















Since the 1960s, the White House has continued to add to its
historical collections while integrating modern technologies to the building. White
House staff began using computers in the 1980s and the first emails were sent
in 1992. In 1979, Jimmy Carter had solar panels installed on the White House roof,
though they were removed in the 1980s as Reagan’s administration promoted fossil
fuels. Solar panels returned under George W. Bush in 2003 and more were added
under Barack Obama in 2013. Despite modern renovations and the addition of
security measures following the terrorist attacks of&nbsp;September&nbsp;2001,
citizens can still tour the White House with advance registration through their
Congressional offices. In this and in many other ways, the White House remains&nbsp;an
architectural symbol of the American presidency and&nbsp;the&nbsp;republican
ideals of the Founders. 
 
The White House&nbsp;Visitor Center is&nbsp;located just west of the corner of
15th and E Streets, is open daily from 7:30 am to 4 pm. Inside this temporary
visitor&nbsp;center&nbsp;there is an information desk, a 30-minute movie on the
White House,&nbsp;Where History Lives,&nbsp;and the White House
Historical Association gift shop.

Designed by architect James Hoban and built in coordination with George Washington and other American leaders, the Executive Mansion is known informally around the world as "The White House." Although President Washington oversaw construction, he never lived in the house. President John Adams, elected in 1796 as the second President, and First Lady Abigail Adams were the first residents of the White House, which was still unfinished at the time. It completed in 1800, though construction and restoration projects have taken place ever since. It was partially burned by the British in the War of 1812. Contrary to the popular story that it was painted white to hide burn marks, the White House was simply painted white in 1818. The building was known as the White House prior to this time because of lime-based whitewash that was used to protect the exterior. The White House also includes two wings: the West Wing, built in the early 1900s under Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, and the East Wing, first built by President Theodore Roosevelt and significantly expanded in 1942 to include an underground bunker and office spaces. In all, the White House complex covers around 18 acres and includes gardens and spacious lawns. 

The White House

By the autumn of 1814, the United States found itself mired it a terrible, sour war for which it bore responsibility. Angry over British depredations of American shipping on the high seas and British aid to Native Americans in the West, the United States declared war in the summer of 1812. Over the subsequent two years, the United States repeatedly failed to conquer Canada and suffered economic devastation at the hands of a British blockade. The British blockade of the Chesapeake Bay in particular proved devastating. Initially confined to halting American commerce and raiding small Chesapeake communities, by 1814 the British were ready for something bigger. Having defeated Napoleonic France (at least temporarily), Britain sent reinforcements to the Chesapeake Bay. In August 1814, a British army commanded by Major General Robert Ross marched on Washington, D.C. (defeating an American army at Bladensburg, MD in route) and burned the nation’s capital. Following the sacking of Washington, the British looked to Baltimore as their next target. One of America’s major seaports, home to many privateers, and its third largest city, the British believed “this town must be laid in ashes.”[3] Yet Baltimore would not be easy to crack. Since the start of the blockade, Baltimore invested heavily in its city defenses. U.S. Senator and Maryland militia Major General Samuel Smith (a veteran of the Revolution) supervised the construction of extensive fortifications around the city, including garrisoning Fort McHenry overlooking the city harbor and building powerful redoubts to protect the city’s eastern land approaches. These fortifications were funded by the city and built by its inhabitants, both free and enslaved. To man the defenses, nearly 10,000 men guarded the city, mostly militia from Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, as well as a small force of U.S. Army regulars. To take Baltimore, the British planned a two-prong attack advancing over land at North Point and attacking harbor defenses by sea at Fort McHenry. In the early hours of September 12, 1814, General Ross disembarked near North Point, Maryland with 4,700 men and advanced towards Baltimore. Yet the road from North Point to Baltimore was guarded by a brigade of 3,200 Maryland militia under General John Strickler. Stricker’s men were positioned in a layered defense near North Point, with cavalry scouts keeping Stricker abreast of British movements. General Ross proved undeterred by the American defenses: “I don’t care if it rains militia.”[3] As the British advanced, American skirmishers opened fire. Although only a delaying tactic, one American rifleman managed to mortally wound General Ross. The battle barely begun, command fell to Colonel Brooke, who promptly ordered an attack on the American position. In particular, Brooke ordered his men to exploit a gap on the American left flank. The Americans offered a terrible resistance, particularly on their right flank, but the left eventually crumbled. The Marylanders retreated several miles towards Baltimore in good order, taking up a position in the city’s fortifications. The British claimed victory at the Battle of North Point. During the battle, the Americans lost 163 killed and wounded with 200 captured as compared to the British casualties of 46 killed and 273 wounded. While a tactical defeat, the Battle of North Point proved a strategic victory for the Americans. The battle allowed Major General Samuel Smith to complete his preparations for defending the city. In the subsequent Battle of Baltimore, both the British land and naval assaults were repulsed by the American forces, sparing the city Washington’s fate (and giving rise to the U.S. national anthem). Today nine acres of the battlefield are preserved and interpreted as Maryland’s North Point State Battlefield (nearby North Point State Park also preserves ground relevant to the campaign). Every year, Maryland commemorates the successful defense of Baltimore via the Defenders’ Day state holiday in mid-September.

In the autumn of 1814, the British military successfully attacked and burned Washington, D.C. Hoping to repeat their performance against Baltimore, the British landed and advanced on the city from the east. On September 12, 1814, Maryland militia clashed with the advancing British army at the Battle of North Point. Although  the Americans were ultimately forced to retreat, their defense allowed greater time to prepare Baltimore's defenses. The British were repulsed at Baltimore days later. Today, a portion of the battlefield is preserved and interpreted with North Point State Battlefield, and Maryland celebrates Defenders' Day annually in honor of the successful defense of Baltimore in 1814.

Battle of North Point

The Battle of Baltimore occurred during the War of 1812,
after the attack on Washington D.C. in 1814.&nbsp; While the attack on D.C. was happening, Baltimore prepared for
the pending British attack on their harbor and city. Citizens&nbsp;erected&nbsp;a&nbsp;mile of barricades to defend the city and also worked to block the&nbsp;Inner Harbor. In addition to these preparations, federal troops were assisted by local citizens in preparing&nbsp;Fort McHenry for the attack by the British Navy.&nbsp;

Most remember the famous naval battle that inspired the lyrics to a poem that became America's national anthem, Francis Scott Key's "The Star-Spangled Banner." &nbsp;On September 12, British warships&nbsp;traveled&nbsp;up the Patapsco River to attack Fort McHenry and other defensive fortifications. Lyrics such as "and the rockets red glare! The bombs bursting in air!" describe&nbsp;the British attack. Meanwhile, troops also attempted to take the city by land.&nbsp;Nearly 4500 British troops&nbsp;arrived at North Point, an area&nbsp;close
to the opening of the Patapsco River, and began an&nbsp;11-mile journey to Baltimore. Baltimore was in danger of falling to the British.The ships attacked Fort McHenry for 25 hours, but the fort’s commander, Major George Armistead, refused to surrender. Meanwhile, British troops faced American defenders in the Battle of
North Point. The British suffered many
losses in that battle, but were still able to reach&nbsp;Baltimore’s protective barricades. When they discovered the&nbsp;British loss at Fort
McHenry, however, they chose to abandon their campaign.&nbsp;The architecture of the monument blends Egyptian and Classical features. The
bottom is mainly in the Egyptian design, its&nbsp;two Black doors resembling a “cenotaph” or a sarcophagus. The columnn adopts the Classical Roman style of a fasces (bundle of rods), which&nbsp;stands
for unity. In 1827, President John Quincy Adams praised Baltimore as “the
Monumental City,” thanks to this monument and the Washington Monument.

The Baltimore Battle Monument was dedicated on September 12, 1822 to honor the 39 Baltimore citizens who lost their lives protecting Baltimore during a pivotal moment in the War of 1812. In 1814, Baltimore citizens, militiamen, and federal troops protected Baltimore from the land and sea invasion that inspired the lyrics to the National Anthem. This monument honors those who died in defense of the city, and the thousands who manned defensive fortifications around the city and bay area throughout the war. It soon became part of the official symbol of Baltimore city, featuring on the city's official seal since 1827. 

Thunder on the Bay: A Heritage Tour of the 1813-1814 Chesapeake Campaign

Fort McHenry

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Additional Information