This area was&nbsp;discovered by
the Spaniards in 1770, who built the&nbsp;Presidio to garrisoin the area and thwart any possible&nbsp;invasion by Russia. The Presidio's strategic location allowed its occupants to monitor&nbsp;Monterey&nbsp;Bay. The United States took&nbsp;control of the installation in 1846 during its war with
Mexico. After the war, Presidio was left abandoned and vacant. In 1902, the government decided to use the
installation for training soldiers, a mission that continues to this day.&nbsp;The installation is currently home to the
Department of Defense foreign language program.&nbsp;

One of the exhibits, including authentic uniforms, saddles, and tack from the early 1900s. 

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The Presidio of Monterey is the only former Spanish presidio (fortified base) to remain an active site operated by the Department of Defense. Today, the Presidio of Monterey is home to one of the most prestigious language programs in the world. The historic military installation is also home to the Presidio of Monterey Museum. This small museum includes exhibits related to the military installation and was created by a partnership between the military and the city of Monterey.

Presidio Museum of Monterey

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The location of Sutter’s Fort near downtown Sacramento indicates its central role in the development of the city from its earliest days, forming the nucleus around which the city would grow as prospectors flooded in during the Gold Rush of 1849. Ten years prior, however, John Sutter was simply the first non-Native American settler in the region, just beginning to build the gargantuan estate that would define the experience of most American pioneers as they arrived in the northern tracts of Mexican-ruled “Alta California.”Originally born in Switzerland in 1803, Sutter had failed at several business ventures in his native Europe, then Indiana, New Mexico, and Oregon. Hearing of opportunities in California, he finally arrived in the Mexican territory after a circuitous route through Hawaii, the Sandwich Islands, and Russian-owned Alaska before landing in Alta California’s capital of Monterey in 1839--having procured numerous letters of recommendation, credentials, and a dubious story about having been a Captain in the Swiss Guards. Mexican governor Juan Bautista Alvarado saw an opportunity in the 36-year old Swiss-American&nbsp;and granted him land on the northern border of Alta California, provided that he renounced his American citizenship and stayed on to develop the land for at least a year. Alvarado hoped to make Sutter’s fiefdom a buffer between the sparsely populated Mexican territory and encroachments from the Russians and Indian tribes farther north.With the grant in hand, several well-provisioned boats, and roughly a dozen companions (mostly Kanaka Indians from Hawaii), Sutter sailed up the Sacramento River from San Francisco until he found a site in present-day Sacramento, on the banks of a watercourse he soon christened the American River. For the first year, the pioneers lived in tule huts, not unlike those of the Kanaka, but soon work began on the famous fort itself, as Sutter feared raids from hostile tribes. His workforce grew as American settlers trickled over the Rocky Mountains--these were usually welcomed with open arms (though Alvarado had placed Sutter to the north in part to deny entry to American incursion) and often employed at the fort in supervisory roles.The bulk of the manual labor came, in fact, from Native Americans, of whom Sutter may have kept up to 600-800 in forced labor and slavery. Raids and kidnappings obtained more slaves for Sutter to sell, or trade as gifts to pay off his debts. And a number of eyewitness accounts detail the abysmal, unsanitary conditions in which his Indian slaves were housed and fed. Sutter is also documented as having instigated several bloody massacres against local tribes he believed hostile, such as the Kern and Sutter Massacres. A German immigrant who leased land from Sutter reported:<blockquote>“When Sutter established himself in 1839 in the Sacramento Valley, new misfortune came upon these peaceful natives of the country...Those who did not want to work were considered as enemies. With other tribes the field was taken against the hostile Indian...The villages were attacked usually before daybreak when everybody was still asleep. Neither old nor young was spared by the enemy, and often the Sacramento River was colored red by the blood of the innocent Indians, for these villages usually were situated at the banks of the rivers. During a campaign one section of the attackers fell upon the village by way of land. All the Indians of the attacked village naturally fled to find protection on the other bank of the river. But there they were awaited by the other half of the enemy and thus the unhappy people were shot and killed with rifles from both sides of the river. Seldom an Indian escaped such an attack, and those who were not murdered were captured. All children from six to fifteen years of age were usually taken by the greedy white people. The village was burned down and the few Indians who had escaped with their lives were left to their fate.”1</blockquote>The 18-foot tall, 3-foot thick adobe walls of Sutter’s Fort, guarded at the corners by two-story watchtowers, made the possibility of reprisals remote. Sutter lacked not for weapons, either: in September 1841 he purchased the assets of Fort Ross from the departing Russians, gaining several dozen muskets and a number of cannons—making Sutter’s Fort one of the best-armed outposts in California. Inside the walls stood Sutter’s 3-story Casa Grande, the headquarters from which he managed his operations, along with a bakery, gristmill, blanket factory, and several workshops. Some structures had been disassembled from the vacant Fort Ross, transported to Nueva Helvecia, and reconstructed inside Sutter’s Fort. The outpost’s corner watchtowers resembled those of Fort Ross, but were clad in adobe rather than redwood.The Fort became the center of European civilization in Central California. Sutter issued Mexican passports, paid for advertisements encouraging settlers from America (and welcoming an American scouting party under U.S. Army officer John C. Fremont in 1844), Germany, and Switzerland, and organized a guard of 50 Native Americans with muskets and uniforms to protect the fort. In 1846, the Fort was briefly seized by U.S. Army forces affiliated with Fremont. It was a small inconvenience for Sutter, and he even helped organize an expedition with Army Captain Edward Kern to attack a number of Indian tribes in March 1847. Sutter and thirty volunteers aided in the “Sutter and Kern Massacres.”Sutter’s golden age was not to last. American troops soon returned his fort, but in 1848 Sutter’s eccentric millwright, James Marshall, discovered gold in nearby Coloma. Word got out despite efforts to keep the discovery secret, and soon prospectors and squatters were pouring in from the Eastern United States to seek their fortunes. Much of the land where gold was suspected to be found was Sutter’s—land which the prospectors felt Sutter had no right to—since it had been a grant from the defeated Mexican government. Worse still, Sutter’s employees fled their posts to search for gold themselves. The Fort fell into disrepair and Sutter was bankrupt by 1852, his crops and herds devastated by poachers and squatters. In 1857, he lost much of his land in a California court case, and what was left he deeded to his son, who divided and sold the land in lots to found the town of Sacramento.Retiring to a secondary property, Hock Farm, a few miles south of Yuba City, Sutter subsisted there on a state pension until 1865, when his house was burned down. He spent the rest of his life seeking reparations from the U.S. government in Washington D.C. before dying in 1880. Likewise, Sutter’s Fort in Sacramento slowly crumbled until 1890. By then, only the much-deteriorated Casa Grande remained until the Native Sons of the Golden West, a fraternal service organization, recognized its pivotal place in California history and purchased the property.By 1937, the fort was restored to much of its former self and became a California State Park (sharing space in a Sacramento City Park with the California State Indian Museum), and today hosts a wide variety of events, living history experiences, and educational programs.

Built in 1839, Sutter’s Fort was the headquarters of Swiss immigrant Johan Suter--later known as John Sutter--and his massive agricultural estate entitled “Nueva Helvecia” (New Switzerland). As the first non-Native American community in California’s Central Valley, the fort soon came to play an important role in many of California history’s most crucial events,  from the Gold Rush to the Donner Party, to the founding of Sacramento, California’s eventual capital. Sutter’s farming empire, propped up by a mountain of debt and Native American slave labor, came crashing down during the latter days of the California Gold Rush, when squatters and prospectors stripped his ranching herds and fields for food, then litigated Sutter out of his Mexican land grant. Much of Sutter’s Fort slowly crumbled in the decades after, but the remainder was rescued by the Native Sons of the Golden West in the 1890s and fully restored by its centennial in 1939. Today it is a California State Park housing a vibrant museum in the heart of Sacramento.

Sutter's Fort State Historic Park

Under orders from Lt. Mariano Vallejo, a barracks was constructed across from Mission San Francisco Solano de Sonoma. This structure would house military troops that had been transferred from the Presidio in San Francisco sent to protect the local inhabitants and enforce a stronger presence to thwart any potential attack from Russians stationed further north in California. Construction took many years due to its being built in sporadic order: 1834-1841.&nbsp; Until the building was habitable the troops were housed in the buildings of the old Mission.&nbsp;While the barracks was built to house troops, most of the space was used as a headquarters and for supply, equipment and weapons storage.The Company's commander Lieutenant Mariano Vallejo&nbsp;was named Military Commander of the Northern Frontier so the Company was also responsible for maintaining control over the Native population north of the Bay. Vallejo's approach to controlling the border region combined direct military action, treaties area with native groups, and forming alliances with Indian leaders on the west, Chief Marin&nbsp;and east, Chief Solano&nbsp;- who provided auxiliary men when the Company way fighting other Native groups. During the years that Company was based in Sonoma they rode out over 100 times to maintain control over the area's Indian groups.The Company did receive support in money and materiel from the Mexican and California governments but Vallejo absorbed the deficits out of his own funds. All the other presidial companies in Alta California had been replaced by civilian militias by the time the San Francisco Company moved to Sonoma.Lieutenant Colonel Vallejo disbanded the Presidial Company on November 28, 1844 with the plea that he could not longer afford paying for them. Among his other reasons may have been avoiding being drawn into a rebellion against Governor&nbsp;Micheltorena&nbsp;by his nephew&nbsp;Juan Alvarado&nbsp;and childhood friend&nbsp;Jose Castro.&nbsp;After releasing the soldiers, Vallejo retained the weapons and military supplies stored in the Barracks for the use of the civilian militia. (Nine old cannon of various sizes, two hundred long infantry muskets, fifty carbines, cannon and musket balls and a small amount of Black powder.)&nbsp;The Sonoma Barracks was also, for a short period, the home and headquarters of the&nbsp;Compania de Infanteria Permanente de Sonoma, a regular Mexican Infantry Company composed of young, not-so-willing Californio draftees.On June 10, 1846 a group of dissatisfied and fearful American immigrants with a murky relationship to U.S. Army Brevet Captain&nbsp;John Fremont&nbsp;had captured a herd of Californian government horses which they feared would be used against them.&nbsp;They next determined to seize the Pueblo of Sonoma to deny the Californians a rallying point north of San Francisco Bay.&nbsp;Capturing the arms and military materiel (stored in the Barracks) and Lieutenant Colonel Vallejo would delay any military response from the Californians.Before dawn on Sunday, June 14, 1846 thirty-three of the American rebels arrived in Sonoma. They accomplished their objectives, without ever firing a shot, by 11:00 AM. At that time, Vallejo and three of his associates were placed on horseback and taken to Fremont near Sacramento with eight or nine of the insurgents who did not favor forming a new republic.&nbsp;The Barracks became the headquarters for the remaining twenty-five who founded the new&nbsp;California Republic&nbsp;and created its Bear Flag. The rebellion subsequently became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.&nbsp;Other immigrants and their families began moving into Sonoma to be under the protection of the muskets and cannon taken from the Barracks. Some families were housed in the Barracks - others in the homes of the Californians.Fremont and his mapping expedition group arrived in Sonoma on June 24, throwing off any pretense of neutrality.&nbsp;On July 5 Fremont proposed to the Bears that they unite with his party and form a single military group under his command. A compact was drawn up which all volunteers of the&nbsp;California Battalion&nbsp;signed or made their mark.&nbsp;The next day Fremont, leaving the fifty men of Company B at the Barracks, left with the rest of the Battalion for&nbsp;Sutter's Fort&nbsp;They took with them two of the captured field pieces as well as muskets, a supply of ammunition, blankets, horses, and cattle.Seven weeks after war with Mexico had been declared in Washington, D.C., Commodore&nbsp;John D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's&nbsp;Pacific Squadron, after being assured that war with Mexico had been declared, instructed the captains of his ships to occupy&nbsp;Monterey&nbsp;on July 7 and&nbsp;Yerba Buena&nbsp;(now San Francisco) on July 9. Early on July 9 - Navy Lt. Joseph Revere&nbsp;was sent to Sonoma carrying two 27-star United States flags for the Sonoma Barracks and&nbsp;Sutter's Fort&nbsp;(the squadron had run out of new flags that reflected Texas’&nbsp;admittance to the Union). Raising the&nbsp;American flag&nbsp;in front of the Barracks marked the end of the&nbsp;Bear Flag Revolt&nbsp;and the&nbsp;California Republic.&nbsp;The majority of the&nbsp;California Battalion&nbsp;was transported to San Diego by the U. S. Navy to assist in securing California for the United States. The Barracks served as housing for a number of former Bears and their families after the&nbsp;Battalion&nbsp;left. Most of the those remaining Bears eventually returned to their homes. The Sonoma&nbsp;Alacade&nbsp;complained to the U.S. Navy about the lack of protection for the town and a detachment of&nbsp;US Marines&nbsp;was assigned to the Sonoma Barracks.&nbsp;The Navy completed the planking of the second floor, raised the roof and replaced the roof tile with shingles.In March, 1847, the Marines were replaced by Company "C" of what was called&nbsp;Stevenson's New York Volunteers.&nbsp;The enlistments of the New York Volunteers ended with the war and they were replaced in May, 1849, by a 37-man company of U.S.&nbsp;dragoons&nbsp;(Company C, 1st U.S. Dragoons) who moved into the Barracks and established Camp Sonoma.&nbsp;Sonoma lost its military population in January, 1852, when the troops moved to Benicia and other assignments in California and Oregon.&nbsp;The Army continued to use part of the Barracks as a supply depot until August 1853.&nbsp;Soon after the military left the building Vallejo filed a claim of $20,600 with the U.S. Army for back-rent. After several years the claim reached the&nbsp;Court of Claims&nbsp;where it was contested by the U.S. Solicitor General on a number of bases. The Court awarded Vallejo a reduced amount ($12,600) based upon a lower rental rate and shorter rental period than was originally claimed.From the 1850s to the 1870s, the building was used as a winery and to grow silk worms experimentally. Sold to Solomon Shocken in 1879, the barracks then became a grocery store before being sold to the Murphy's, a local couple, in the 1930s who used it as a residence. It was finally transferred to the Sonoma Historical Society in 1957 and was restored as part of the Historic Sonoma Parks. &nbsp;

Mexican barracks built in 1834 and finished in 1841 under orders from Lt. Mariano Vallejo to house soldiers transferred from the Presidio in San Francisco. The purpose was to protect Mexican locals and Indian tribes, especially from the Russian presence just north of the area and later against Californios during the Bear Flag Revolt. Used by the US military during Mexican War. 

Sonoma Barracks

The battle was the result of the increasing tensions between the Californios, the Mexican inhabitants the Santa Clara area, and&nbsp;American immigrants who were&nbsp;encroaching on the Mexicans' lands. The spark for the battle occurred when six American sailors, who went ashore to buy food from the Mexicans,&nbsp;were taken hostage. The event, nicknamed the Battle of the Mustard Stalks because it began in a mustard field,&nbsp;&nbsp;was really more of a skirmish than an actual battle. It lasted only two hours and there were no deaths.&nbsp; As a result, an American force was sent to rescue the sailors who were eventually released after negotiations. Another marker nearby indicates the location where the formal surrender and release took place.&nbsp; There is an interesting side note to the battle at Santa Clara. One of the battle's participants was James Reed, one of the leaders of the doomed Donner Party. Reed was in the area to attempt to secure a relief party for the trapped remnants of his party, but had difficulties as many of the able-bodied men were fighting in the war.&nbsp;

Between January 2-7, 1847, Mexican and American forces fought in a skirmish that was nicknamed the "Battle of the Mustard Stalks." It was the only battle during the Mexican-American War fought in Northern California. It received its nicknamed because the American forces were in a mustard field when the Mexicans opened fire. A historical marker indicates the location of the skirmish. The actual battle only lasted a couple of hours on the first day but negotiations lasted for the full five days. Four Mexican soldiers died and four were wounded; only two Americans were injured.

Battle of Santa Clara

The nearby town of San Juan Bautista&nbsp;was the marshaling area for Lieutenant Colonel&nbsp;John C. Fremont's forces of about 450 men of the&nbsp;California Battalion&nbsp;en route to joining up with Commodore&nbsp;Robert Stockton's and General&nbsp;Stephen Kearny's forces of about 500 men converging on&nbsp;Los Angeles&nbsp;to put down a sputtering revolt there. An American scouting party was attacked by a force of mounted Mexican&nbsp;Californios&nbsp;on&nbsp;Rancho La Natividad&nbsp;in the&nbsp;Salinas. The Californios were attempting to capture some horses being herded by the Americans. A battle ensued in which the Californio force killed four Americans and wounded more. The American volunteers were buried on the&nbsp;Gomez Rancho. The Californios reported no deaths but 5 wounded. The Americans reported several Californios dead and several wounded. As the Californios retreated the Americans did not give chase. The Walla Walla and Delaware&nbsp;Indian&nbsp;detachment fighting with the Americans fought aggressively and bravely displaying two scalps they had taken during the conflict. The final clause of the treaty includes the following terms: "That the paroles of all officers, citizens and others of the United States, and of naturalized citizens of Mexico, are by this foregoing capitulation cancelled; and every condition of said paroles from and after this date are of no further force and effect; and all prisoners of both parties are hereby released."This clause&nbsp;was inserted to protect several members of the Californios fighting in this fight who were in clear violation of their paroles they had given to keep the peace and not undertake hostilities.

At this location during the Mexican-American War, a small battle was waged between American militiamen and men who were loyal to Mexican government. The battle was important because although it was only a minor skirmish, the Americans were able to keep their horses and therefore deliver them in a timely manner to Fremont and his California Battalion on their march to Southern California. The Treaty of Cahuenga signed by Fremont and Andres Pico in January 1847 ended all hostilities in California. 

Battle of Natividad

The&nbsp;Battle of Cahuenga Pass&nbsp;of 1831 was fought at&nbsp;Cahuenga Pass&nbsp;near Los Angeles between the unpopular&nbsp;Mexican Governor of California, Manuel Victoria, and a force assembled by wealthy local landowners. A small group made up of the more wealthy citizens of Alta California (Upper California)&nbsp;united and petitioned Governor Victoria for democratic reforms. Victoria called two of the men, Jose Antonio Carrillo&nbsp;&nbsp;and&nbsp;Abel Stearns, "traitors", and ordered their execution. He later stayed the sentences and had the men banished from Alta CaliforniaThe previous governor,&nbsp;Jose Maria de Echeandia, had been more popular, so the original dissidents, including the two "traitors," along with several other land owners, suggested to him that Victoria's stay as governor would shortly be coming to an abrupt end. They built up a small army, marched into Los Angeles, and "captured" the town. Victoria gathered a small army to drive them off, leading it himself. The forces met on December 5, 1831, at&nbsp;Cahuegna Pass, with Captain Portilla in charge of the rebels.The opposing armies were made up of brothers, sons, uncles, nephews, and friends, who though angry at one-another preferred to avoid mortal combat. Victoria had half the troops of his opponents. Undaunted, he ordered his men to fire. They did so, but aimed their volley over their adversaries' heads. The rebels answered with a similar reply, and a stand-off ensued.Alone among the government troops Captain Jose Antonio Romualdo Pacheco (father of the future governor&nbsp;Romulado Pacheco) interpreted Victoria's order as a command to charge the enemy on horseback, spurring on his mount with outstretched lance. When he discovered he was alone he halted between the two forces.&nbsp;Jose Maria Avila&nbsp;of the rebel army, a former&nbsp;alcalde&nbsp;of the&nbsp;Pueblo (village) of Los Angeles, took offense and went out to challenge Pacheco in mounted combat.Excellent horsemen, the pair were evenly matched. After three unsuccessful charges, Pacheco finally knocked Avila's lance to the ground. Infuriated, Avila drew his pistol and shot Pacheco from the saddle, killing him. Shocked at his reflexive act, Avila sat his horse in a kind of horrified stupor.Upset at such unchivalrous behavior, Governor Victoria, drew his pistol and shot Avila to death. This angered Captain Portilla, who charged Victoria and put his lance through the Governor's face, ripping off a chunk of flesh and cartilage. Victoria fell writhing at the wound. Both forces broke off the conflict.Governor Victoria survived, but subsequently resigned the governorship of Alta California. The previous governor, Echeandia, resumed his role until Jose Figueroa&nbsp;took over on January 14, 1833.Site of battle is traditionally believed to have been located at in/near modern day El Paseo de Cahuenga Park.&nbsp;

This is the approximate location of First Battle of Cahuenga Pass in 1831 between rebel and loyalist Californios over the way Mexico ruled California. This battle is not to be confused with Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass that took place nearby 14 years later, although the reason for the second battle was similar to the reason for the first battle. 

First Battle of Cahuenga Pass

The Battle of Providencia&nbsp;(also called the "Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass") took place in&nbsp;Cahuenga Pass&nbsp;in 1845 on&nbsp;Rancho Providencia&nbsp;in the&nbsp;San Fernando Valley, north of&nbsp;Los Angeles. Rebellious forces backed by wealthy landowners challenged those of the Mexican government over rule of&nbsp;Alta California (Upper California). Alta California, for three centuries a territorial province of Spain, had been under Mexican control since 1821. By the 1840s native born Californios&nbsp;grew angry that the Mexican government continued to choose&nbsp;Mexican-born governors. In 1842, it appointed&nbsp;Manuel Micheltorena, who proved very unpopular. By 1844, a revolt began, culminating in the Battle of Providencia.In spite of an extensive artillery barrage&nbsp;battle casualties were similarly slight as in the first&nbsp;Battle of Cahuenga Pass, being limited to one horse and one mule.In the battle's wake Micheltorena withdrew his forces and ceded the governorship to&nbsp;Pio Pico, a 1st generation Californio born at&nbsp;Mission San Gabriel Arcangel&nbsp;in modern day San Gabriel. Pico would go down in history, controversially, for his role is selling all California mission lands and structures, gaining wealth, as American forces swept through California and he chose not to resist.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The monument for this battle also commemorates the burial of&nbsp;James Boon Lankershim, Missouri-native that moved to the area and soon founded the Los Angeles Flour and Milling Co. and was once a president of Main Street Savings Bank. He requested his ashes be here after his death. The marker also denotes that 1.5 miles north of monument location, was were the Treaty of Cahuenga was passed. Monument is located on hiking roads of the Briar Summit Open Space Reserve

This site is believed to be the location where the Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass took place in the Cahuenga Pass area of Los Angeles in 1845. This was a battle just before the Mexican War (1846-1848) between two groups of Californios (loyalists and rebels) over Mexico's rule over California. 

The Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass/Battle of Providencia

Siege of Los Angeles:&nbsp; Following the Battle Monterey, the Americans held northern California but General Jose Maria Castro and Governor&nbsp;Pio Pico&nbsp;planned resistance in the south around the Los Angeles area.&nbsp;Commodore&nbsp;Robert F. Stockton&nbsp;arrived at Monterey Bay aboard the&nbsp;Congress&nbsp;on 15 July and took over command from&nbsp;John D. Sloat.&nbsp;Stockton accepted the Bear Flag revolutionaries, under the command of Major&nbsp;John C. Fremont, as the&nbsp;California Battalion/&nbsp;Stockton then garrisoned&nbsp;Sonoma,&nbsp;San Juan Bautista,&nbsp;Santa Clara, and&nbsp;Sutter's Fort.&nbsp;&nbsp;Stockton's plan for dealing with Castro was to have Commander&nbsp;Samuel Francis Du Pont&nbsp;carry Fremont's men in the&nbsp;Cyane&nbsp;to&nbsp;San Diego&nbsp;to block any movement southwards, while Stockton would land a force at San Pedro&nbsp;which would move overland against Castro.&nbsp;Fremont arrived at San Diego on 29 July and reached San Pedro on 6 August aboard the&nbsp;Congress. Upon holding a council of war, Castro decided to leave California, heading to&nbsp;Sonora&nbsp;with Pico and a few supporters on 11 August, while the rest of his force retired to Rancho San Pascual. On 13 August 13 1846, Stockton led his columnn into town, followed by Fremont's force a half hour later.&nbsp;On the 14 August, the remnants of the California army surrendered. Stockton established a garrison of forty-eight men under Capt. Archibald H. Gillespie&nbsp;and departed in September.&nbsp;His men, however, were undisciplined in an area with pro-Mexican feelings.On 23 September, twenty men under the command of Cerbulo Varela exchanged shots with the Americans at Government House, which ignited Los Angeles.&nbsp;On 24 September, 150&nbsp;Californios, organized under Jose Maria Flores, a Mexican Officer who remained in California, at Castro's old camp at La Mesa.&nbsp;Gillespie's forces were effectively besieged, while Gillespie sent Juan "Flaco" Brown to Commodore Stockton for help. Gillespie's men retreated to Fort Hill on 28 September, but without water, they surrendered the next day. Terms called for Gillespie's men to leave Los Angeles, which they did on 30 September 1846, and boarded the American merchant vessel&nbsp;Vandalia.Flores quickly cleared remaining American forces in southern California. It would take many more battles/skirmishes with Mexican and loyalist Californio forces for American forces to successfully complete the recapture of Los Angeles.&nbsp;Fort Moore: The harsh martial law&nbsp;of Captain Gillespie soon ignited a popular uprising among&nbsp;loyalist Californios&nbsp;and&nbsp;Mexicans&nbsp;led by General&nbsp;Jose Maria Flores&nbsp;beginning on September 22, 1846&nbsp;to retake Los Angeles. Gillespie's 50 marines were able to resist an initial attack on the government house in town and regrouped on Fort Hill, where they strengthened the fortification with&nbsp;sandbags&nbsp;and mounted their&nbsp;cannon. As time passed, the Californio forces opposing the U.S. takeover grew to just over 600 men, with several Californio citizens voicing opposition. General Flores offered an&nbsp;ultimatum: leave within 24 hours or face attack. Gillespie agreed to withdraw from Los Angeles, under safe passage, on September 30, 1846. On October 7, the U.S. forces regrouped, with Commodore Stockton sending 350 Americans, including 200 U.S. Marines, under U.S. Navy Capt.&nbsp;William Mervine, to retake Los Angeles. The marines were defeated in their attempt at the&nbsp;Battle of Dominguez Rancho, as Stockton's fleet fled south to&nbsp;San Diego. In December, U.S. Army forces under Captain&nbsp;Stephen W. Kearny&nbsp;were defeated by the Californio&nbsp;Lancers&nbsp;at the&nbsp;Battle of San Pasqual. After regrouping and resupplying forces in San Diego, on January 10, 1847, Los Angeles was recaptured by the combined 700 man forces of&nbsp;John C. Fremont, Stockton and Kearny, after the&nbsp;Battle of Rio San Gabriel&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Battle of La Meas. With the signing of the&nbsp;Treaty of Cahuenga&nbsp;on January 13, 1847, war in&nbsp;Alta California (Upper California)&nbsp;ended.On January 12, 1847, to secure the area from future attack, U.S. forces began erecting a 400-foot long&nbsp;breastwork&nbsp;on the same strategic site as the previous Fort Hill and named it the Post at Los Angeles.&nbsp;The plans were later revised, and on April 23 a larger defensive structure was begun on the same site. Constructed by the&nbsp;Mormon Battalion&nbsp;and the&nbsp;US First Dragoons, it was designed for six cannons. It was never completed and was dedicated as Fort Moore on July 4, 1847, named after Captain Benjamin D. Moore, 1st Dragoons, one of 22 Americans killed in the&nbsp;Battle of San Pasqual&nbsp;in&nbsp;San Diego County, on December 6, 1846.Lieutenant William T. Sherman&nbsp;ordered the garrison withdrawn in 1848, and the fort was abandoned in 1849 and decommissioned in 1853. Part of the hill would become a cemetery.&nbsp;The cemetery was overseen by the city starting in 1869. It was not well taken care of, lacking clearly delineated boundaries, complete records or adequate maintenance. The Los Angeles City Council&nbsp;passed a resolution on August 30, 1879, closing the cemetery to any future burials except for those with already reserved plots. By 1884, the city had sold portions of the cemetery as residential lots and the rest to the Los Angeles Board of Education (later the&nbsp;Los Angeles Unified School District or&nbsp;LAUSD).The city never removed any bodies, and the former cemetery was the site of repeated, grisly findings and much negative press. As a result, the city began moving the bodies, most to&nbsp;Evergreen Cemetery,&nbsp;Rosedale Cemetery&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hollywood Memorial Park Cemetery, with the final bodies being transferred in May 1947. The recent construction of Los Angeles High School #9 resulted in the discovery of additional human remains. These were excavated by archaeologists in 2006.In 1891, the site became home to the second location of Los Angeles High School&nbsp;(LAHS),. LAHS was at this location on Fort Moore Hill until 1917, when the&nbsp;high school&nbsp;was moved again. Part of the site was later replaced by the headquarters of the LAUSD. Because of political and financial hardship caused by the construction of the nearby&nbsp;Belmont Learning Center, the LAUSD moved from the location in 2001 so that a new high school could be built on its location. The new high school, formerly named Central Los Angeles Area New High School #9,&nbsp;is now named&nbsp;Roman C. Cortines School of Visual and Performing Arts&nbsp;and is a part of the adjacent Los Angeles Cultural Corridor.Most of Fort Moore Hill was removed in 1949 for the construction of the&nbsp;Hollywood Freeway,&nbsp;which was opened in December 1950,&nbsp;and in 1957 a memorial for the old fort and its American pioneers was placed on a site north of the freeway.The Fort Moore Pioneer Memorial is a large stone memorial wall built in 1957 on part of the original location of Fort Moore facing North Hill Street. As the largest&nbsp;bas-relief&nbsp;military monument in the United States, it honors the Mormon Battalion, the U.S. 1st Dragoons, and the&nbsp;New York&nbsp;Volunteers who raised the American Flag&nbsp;over the fort on July 4, 1847, at the first&nbsp;Independence Day&nbsp;in Los Angeles.Funded by Los Angeles County, the City of Los Angeles, the Los Angeles Board of Education and the Department of Water and Power, the memorial was designed by&nbsp;Kazumi Adachi&nbsp;and&nbsp;Dike Nagano&nbsp;and dedicated on July 3, 1957. Featuring four different panels, a 78 feet by 45 feet&nbsp;panel designed by&nbsp;Saltus Award-winner&nbsp;Henry Kries&nbsp;is the most prominent feature and portrays the July 4 event.Other panels represent the agricultural and spiritual foundation of the region; transportation that shaped the city at the end of the 19th century; and the crucial role that water and electricity play in a large modern city.

This site marks the location of two forts (Forts Hill and Moore) occupied by American and Mexican forces during the Mexican-American War from late 1846-early 1847 (the war ended in 1848). After the American force took the town without firing a shot on August 13, Mexican forces, outnumbering the Americans, marched to Los Angeles. The Americans retreated to Fort Hill and fortified it until an ultimatum was delivered and signed forcing the US forces to leave the then Pueblo (village) de Los Angeles. This was one of a handful of conflicts in Southern California for control of Los Angeles. Fort Hill was renamed Fort Moore after Captain Benjamin D. Moore, 1st Dragoons, one of 22 Americans killed in the Battle of San Pasqual in San Diego County, on December 6, 1846, two months after the siege ended. 

Siege of Los Angeles and Fort Moore/Fort Hill

*There are in fact two markers in Vernon stating to be the site where the battle was fought. This location is for the bigger and newer monument in Vernon. The other is small and near railroad tracks close by to this location. It is believed that the latter marker is really the spot where Mexican forces were camped before the battle. The address for the&nbsp;second marker is at 4490 Exchange Ave and Downey Rd.* The&nbsp;Battle of La Mesa&nbsp;of the&nbsp;Mexican War&nbsp;occurred on 9 January 1847, in present-day&nbsp;Vernon on, the day after the&nbsp;Battle of San Gabriel&nbsp;during the&nbsp;California Campaign. Not finding any Californians at Pio Pico's ranch after their victory at the Battle of San&nbsp;Gabriel, the Americans crossed the plain between the&nbsp;San Gabriel River&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Los Angeles River&nbsp;called La Mesa.&nbsp;They encountered&nbsp;Jose Maria's 300-strong force of&nbsp;loyalist Californio militia, including artillery,&nbsp;near where the city of Vernon now stands, about 4 miles south of Los Angeles. The Californian guns were ineffective, while the American guns responded from their square as the Americans advanced.&nbsp;Flores extended his line and brought up two more guns.&nbsp;Stockton halted and formed his guns into a single battery.&nbsp;After fifteen minutes, Stockton's fire drove the Californian artillery from effective range.&nbsp;Flores sent his lancers against the American left flank but were driven back and most deserted, allowing the Americans to advance into Los Angeles. The battle was the last armed resistance to the American advance in California, and General&nbsp;Flores&nbsp;returned to Mexico. The conquest and annexation of Alta California (Upper California)&nbsp;was settled with the signing of the&nbsp;Treaty of Cahuenga&nbsp;by&nbsp;US Army&nbsp;Colonel&nbsp;John C. Fremont&nbsp;and Californio General&nbsp;Andres Pico&nbsp;on January 13, 1847.

This location is believed to be the exact site of the last battle between American and Mexican forces for the control of both Los Angeles and Southern California during the Mexican War (1846-1848). The battle took place on January 9, 1847. The site was also where the Mexicans were encamped. The two primary military commanders who participated in the battle were Navy Commodore Robert Stockton and Mexican officer and Governor of Alta California, Jose Maria Flores.

Battle of La Mesa

Rancho San Pedro:&nbsp; Juan Jose Dominguez&nbsp;(1736–1809), a Spanish soldier, arrived in&nbsp;San Diego, in 1769 with&nbsp;Fernando Rivera y Moncando&nbsp;and served with the&nbsp;Gaspar de Portola&nbsp;expedition and, along with&nbsp;Junipero Serra, traveled to&nbsp;San Juan Capistrano,&nbsp;San Gabriel, and&nbsp;Monterey. In 1784, Dominguez was granted a concession of&nbsp;75,000 acres, from the&nbsp;Spanish EmpireDomínguez's original grazing permission stretched from present-day Compton to the Palos Verdes Peninsula but did not become a title to land until it was "re-granted" in 1822 in the Mexican era to Juan José's nephew and heir, Cristóbal Domínguez. Cristóbal died soon afterward, but his three sons settled on the ranch, building adobe homes. The following year&nbsp;Manuel Dominguez, eldest son of Cristóbal Domínguez, married María Engracia de Cota and commenced a successful career raising cattle and serving in a variety of elected and appointed offices in Los Angeles.For many years, a portion of the Rancho San Pedro land grant was contested between the Domínguez and&nbsp;Sepulvida&nbsp;families through various appeals to Spanish Governors and lawsuits from 1817–1883 and was eventually partitioned into seventeen parcels in 1882. The Sepúlveda family was awarded 31,629 acres known as&nbsp;Rancho de los Palos Verdes&nbsp;that later became the cities of the Palos Verdes Peninsula, as well as portions of Torrance and San Pedro.This location would be a scene of battle that trampled through the peaceful area.&nbsp;Battle of Dominguez:&nbsp; After receiving word of the Siege of Los Angeles, Commodore Robert F. Stockton&nbsp;sent US Navy&nbsp;Captain William Mervine&nbsp;and the USS&nbsp;Savannah&nbsp;on October 4 to San Pedro&nbsp;to assist Capt. Archibald Gillespie.&nbsp;Arriving on October 6, Mervine set out on October 7 with sailors, marines and bear flaggers (Californios&nbsp;against the Mexican government rule of California)&nbsp;to recapture the town after the small American force in Los Angeles was driven out.&nbsp; Mervine's march was poorly planned with little knowledge of the enemy. His troops were armed with an assortment of muskets, cutlasses and pikes; they brought no horses, wagons or cannons. When the Americans had occupied Los Angeles in August, residents had hidden some weapons by burying them. General José Flores' force, equipped with lances, knives and old firearms that had been hidden, was nearly as poorly armed, but it did have a cannon. This old brass four-pounder, used ceremonially, had been buried in the garden of Inocencia Reyes. It was dug up and mounted on a horse-drawn limber.Mervine and his troops set out on October 7 and reached Dominguez Rancho, where they camped for the night, within view of an advance detachment of Flores' troops. There was more or less firing during the night, with no other effect than that of keeping Mervine's party on the alert.&nbsp;&nbsp;Setting off at daylight,&nbsp;the Americans advanced just to the north of Dominguez Rancho.Senora Reyes' four-pounder was placed on the narrow trail that the Americans needed to use. Ropes were lashed to the limber to pull the gun into the brush for reloading. The Californio horsemen deployed at a safe distance from the trail on the enemy's flanks. The simple tactics proved effective. When the Americans came within 400 yards, the cannon was fired and quickly pulled back into the brush, followed by musket fire from the horsemen.Mervine's forces were helpless on foot against an enemy they could neither see nor count. Realizing they could not reach Los Angeles, Mervine had little choice except to retreat.The battle lasted less than an hour; five hours later Mervine's forces were back on their ship in San Pedro Bay.Four of the seriously wounded Americans died and were buried on a little island in San Pedro Bay called Isla de los Muertos (Island of the Dead). Mervine's troops reboarded the&nbsp;Savannah,&nbsp;and after a few days, the warship sailed north toward Monterey. The Dominguez Rancho After the War:With the cession&nbsp;of California to the United States following the&nbsp;War, the 1848&nbsp;Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo&nbsp;provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho San Pedro was filed with the&nbsp;Publis Land Commission&nbsp;in 1852,&nbsp;and a&nbsp;patent&nbsp;for 43,119 acres&nbsp;was granted to Manuel Domínguez and signed by President&nbsp;James Buchanan&nbsp;on December 18, 1858. The first in California In 1869, Union Army Major General&nbsp;William Rosecrans&nbsp;bought 16,000 acres (65&nbsp;km2). The "Rosecrans Rancho" was bordered by what later was Florence Avenue on the north, Redondo Beach Boulevard on the south, Central Avenue on the east, and Arlington Avenue on the west.The Rancho is now a museum teaching visitors about the history of Spanish and Mexican rule in the area, the Mexican War and American victory and the Dominguez family history and legacy of home and family throughout history of California.&nbsp;<div> </div>

This is the location of Manuel Dominguez's 75,000-acre Rancho San Pedro, where the Battle of Dominguez was fought. One of the many conflicts during the American military's two attempts to capture Los Angeles during the Mexican War. This battle resulted in a victory for local Mexican forces. This battle is also known as "The Battle of the Old Woman's Gun."

Dominguez Rancho/Battle of Dominguez

From September 26-27, 1846, the first battle to take place in California occurred during the Mexican War&nbsp;while more larger engagements were fought in Texas and Mexico. Although this battle was really a minor skirmish between Spanish-speaking Americans living in California and Californios loyal to the Mexican government, this became the first step towards the capture of California by American forces. &nbsp; A few years prior to hostilities breaking out, a Isaac Williams&nbsp;&nbsp;from Pennsylvania, moved to California while&nbsp;waiting for passport to China. Experiencing delays, he decided to stay in California. Looking to make his riches, he became a Mexican resident&nbsp;which was a prerequisite of owning land in the Mexican territory&nbsp;but he never renounced his American citizenship. He married&nbsp;Maria de Jesus Lugo, the daughter of Antonio Maria Lugo, The marriage&nbsp;solidified his position in&nbsp;California&nbsp;and&nbsp;brought a rich dowry in property. Antonio, like most male Californians, were perfectly aware of the prosperity that had come to these outsiders&nbsp;and were more or less resentful of it. When the war erupted between Mexico&nbsp;and American, Antonio&nbsp;doubted Benjamin Wilson’s loyalty to&nbsp;Mexico.&nbsp;Most of the foreigners were glad when the United States&nbsp;moved upon&nbsp;California&nbsp;and were willing to aid the American cause,&nbsp;including&nbsp;Benjamin Wilson. Antonio Lugo, knowing his bother-in-law would stay loyal to the United States, ordered up a group of Californios to gather at the ranch where Benjamin Wilson lived in&nbsp;Rancho del Chino. The Rancho was home to Isaac Williams, a Pennsylvania native largely considered the first American settler in the valley.&nbsp;Serbulo Varela, Diego Sepulveda and Ramon Carrillo left from Los Angeles&nbsp;with about fifty men, while José del Carmen&nbsp;Lugo&nbsp;with another fifteen to twenty men left from&nbsp;San Bernardino. As the Californios met up, they converged at Rancho del Chino. On the evening of September 26, the men surrounded the ranch and made plans for action. The following day&nbsp;the Californios, led by Antonio Lugo, opened fire on the ranch that held Benjamin&nbsp;Wilson&nbsp;and&nbsp;his&nbsp;twenty&nbsp;men.&nbsp;The&nbsp;two&nbsp;sides&nbsp;exchanged&nbsp;fire&nbsp;and&nbsp;one&nbsp;of&nbsp;the Californios, Carlos Ballesteros, was killed. At daybreak on the morning of the 27th, the Americans found themselves almost surrounded by Californios cavalrymen.&nbsp;The Californios attempted to burn down the ranch by setting fire to the roof. As the fire began to grow,&nbsp;Serbulo Varela became satisfied that the fire would force the men from the building. Not wanting to wait, he went to the main door and called upon Benjamin Wilson and his companions to surrender. He assured them that he was friendly toward them&nbsp;and that as an old soldier he knew the laws of war respecting the treatment of prisoners.&nbsp;He promised&nbsp;they would not be harmed. Benjamin Wilson conferred with his men in the house&nbsp;and realizing that they could easily be roasted alive, agreed to give themselves up with their arms if Varela would send his men away. Varela immediately ordered his men to the rear of the house to put out the fire&nbsp;and Wilson's men filed out and stacked their arms against the walls as directed.&nbsp;The brief battle was over. In addition to the one Californios dead, there was also two wounded.&nbsp;Three Americans were also wounded.&nbsp;Once Benjamin Wilson and his men were out of the house,&nbsp;they were marched to the Casa de Matanza&nbsp;or slaughter house&nbsp;four hundred yards south.&nbsp;Horses were waiting to transport them to Los Angeles&nbsp;as prisoners of war. On reaching the Casa de Matanza, Serbulo Varela ordered all the men to mount.&nbsp;Benjamin Wilson was&nbsp;permitted to retain his own horse and saddle and ride beside Varela. The other Mexicans and American prisoners were sent ahead&nbsp;with orders to be in&nbsp;Los Angeles&nbsp;that evening. Serbulo Varela’s start was delayed for a few minutes in order to speak with one of his men he stationed at the ranch. Shortly after, he and Benjamin Wilson followed slowly behind&nbsp;the main party.About half a mile from the house, Varela took off ahead, realizing that there was a situation taking place&nbsp;that needed his immediate attention. Calling Benjamin Wilson to follow him, when they were close enough to hear words, Varela understood what was happening&nbsp;and he yelled for the leader to stop. Arriving on the scene, he found that the prisoners had been stood in a line along the side of the road&nbsp;and were apparently about to be shot. Benjamin Wilson later reported that Serbulo Varela rushed forward and placed himself between the Americans and their captors, shouting that he would run his sword through the first man that touched a hair of their heads. Varela had given his word as a gentleman and a commander to save the prisoners&nbsp;and if they wished to kill anyone they could shoot him. Varela realized that&nbsp;since most of these men were related to Mexican families by marriage, they should be treated fairly.&nbsp;&nbsp;As emotions calmed, the prisoners and their escorts&nbsp;arrived that evening at the California&nbsp;encampment. This was situated on the mesa south of&nbsp;Los Angeles,&nbsp;known later as&nbsp;Boyle&nbsp;Heights. &nbsp;This first battle in California&nbsp;during the Mexican-American War, was significant as the Spanish Californios learned that the Americans were not invincible. It may have still be on their minds&nbsp;as American&nbsp;General Stephen Kearny's forces advanced into Southern California from&nbsp;New Mexico shortly afterwards. Due to this victory, the campaign for California, especially Southern California, was not quick for American forces. Had Jose Maria Flores's action, a rebellion, against his brother-in-law and other Americans failed, there is speculation that resistance to Americans would have been just about nonexistent.&nbsp;This small skirmish built up the Californios confidence which without there would probably have been no clash at Dominguez Field in October, or the Battle of San Pasqual in December.&nbsp;As the war between the United States&nbsp;and&nbsp;Mexico&nbsp;developed&nbsp;and the subsequent raising of the&nbsp;United States&nbsp;flag over&nbsp;Monterey&nbsp;by&nbsp;Commodore John D. Sloat, Mexican governor&nbsp;Pio Pico left for Mexico,&nbsp;along with California Military Chief&nbsp;José Castro. Just three days later, Commodore Stockton and Fremont entered&nbsp;Los Angeles&nbsp;with their forces unopposed&nbsp;and completed the occupation of&nbsp;California. The Mexican Army was not giving up&nbsp;California&nbsp;but merely acquiescing in the seizure of their territory, hoping and believing that the outcome of the war would bring it back to them.&nbsp;After Commodore Stockton settled in, he feared that José Castro and his troops leaving may be only a ruse. Fearful of this, he asked Benjamin D. Wilson, who had won his freedom as more American troops poured into California, to enlist a force of men he could trust to&nbsp;follow José&nbsp;&nbsp;Castro far enough to make sure that he was really leaving California. Benjamin Wilson accomplished this&nbsp;and reported that Castro had crossed the Colorado River&nbsp;at&nbsp;Yuma&nbsp;with&nbsp;a&nbsp;small&nbsp;force.&nbsp;He&nbsp;had&nbsp;entered&nbsp;into&nbsp;Mexico&nbsp;at&nbsp;Sonora&nbsp;leaving&nbsp;California&nbsp;to the Americans. However, the battle of Chino would never removed embarrassment for Isaac Williams, at least it would not be removed due to the influence of Benjamin Wilson. Despite the fact that it was under Wilson's leadership that he and his men became entrapped in William's Rancho, Wilson went on to blame the defeat on Williams, citing that it was his, Williams, fault that the force was so easily capture. This blame being laid on Williams helped deny him recognition he deserved for his help and kindness towards migrants moving into the area after the Mexican War.&nbsp;After Williams death in 1856, the adobe became a government building for a short time then demolished, the area became home to the Bella Union Hotel, long since demolished as well.&nbsp;A California Historical Landmark plaque was placed on the spot (or really close by) where the Battle of Chino occurred&nbsp;and Williams adobe once stood. The plaque is in front of a fire department training facility&nbsp;building.&nbsp;

This is the approximate location where the first battle in California took place in modern-day Chino during the Mexican War. The battle, more of a skirmish, resulted in a victory for Mexican forces and proved to the victors that American forces were not invincible, a belief that was rampant at the time while American forces were having sweeping victories along the Texas/Mexico border and into Mexico itself. Due to the marriage of Americans into many local Mexican/Californio families, Americans captured were spared execution because of single fatality, a local Californio, during the battle. 

Battle of Chino

General Stephen&nbsp;Kearny had orders to assume command of US&nbsp;forces in California with his, but sent back most of his force after meeting up with&nbsp;Kit Carson&nbsp;near Socorro on 6 Oct. and hearing of the seizure of&nbsp;California&nbsp;by Commodore&nbsp;Robert F. Stockton, Kearny keeping only&nbsp;Companies C &amp; K, 1st Dragoons, about 100 men.&nbsp;Kearny's force, guided by Carson, reached Warner's Ranch in California on 2 Dec., in a greatly weakened condition.&nbsp;They had just completed a 2,000 mile march; the longest march in U.S. Army history. After turning back the Americans trying to recapture Los Angeles in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, Capt.&nbsp;Jose Maria Flores&nbsp;sent about 100 men to&nbsp;San Luis Obispo&nbsp;to confront Lt. Col.&nbsp;John C. Fremont's 300 men moving south from&nbsp;Monterey, and sent another 100 men to watch Stockton's base at&nbsp;San Diego, but Flores kept the bulk of his men at Los Angeles.Captain&nbsp;Archibald Gillespie&nbsp;with 39 men, met Kearny on 5 Dec. with a message from Stockton requesting Kearny confront Flores' men outside San Diego.&nbsp;The total American force now amounted to about 179 men. Captains Leonardo Cota and Jose Alipaz took a force to San Pasqual Valley with the intention to interdict and keep in check Captain Gillespie after his departure from San Diego. Later, Major Andrés Pico, after a failed search for a detachment of U.S. soldiers, joined forces with the captains and took command. These Californios led a force consisting of landowners, sons of landowners, and vaqueros, many with well known and respected family names in the community. A dragoon patrol under Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, guided by Rafael Machado, the son of Don Jose Manual Machado&nbsp;(Machado family to assist Kearny), reconnoitered Capt.&nbsp;Andres Pico's force along the road at San Pasqual.While Machado sneaked into the camp, Lt. Hammond became suspicious he was being set up for an ambush and rode the dragoons into the camp, where they spoke with an Indian they found sleeping in a hut.&nbsp;&nbsp;In a coincidence that has never been fully explained, a guard under the command of Machado's concunado, the brother of a&nbsp;brother-in-lae&nbsp;and future father-in-law, Captain Jose Alipaz, challenged the dragoons and alerted the camp to their presence.&nbsp;While Machado quickly ran back to Hammond's scouting party, Alipaz sounded the alarm but was dismissed by General Pico, until a U.S. Army blanket and dragoon coat were discovered on the edge of camp by Pablo Véjar. With Capt. Alipaz, Captain&nbsp;Leonardo Cota&nbsp;and José María Ibarra, the Californio standing guard chased the dragoons to the top of the next ridge with the battle cry of "!Viva California!".&nbsp;Pico was alerted, and the Californio camp prepared for the U.S. Army dragoons and marines to attack.Kearny had planned a surprise attack at daylight, despite the damp weather wetting down their powder and the extremely poor state of the soldiers' equipment and mounts — mostly mules, as the horses had died on the preceding march.Having lost the element of surprise, at midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance. It had rained that night. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, but the troops, after over six months without any action, were eager to engage the Californios. Early in the morning of December 6, 1846, the columnn proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria, present day Ramona,&nbsp;and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was still dark and with a low-lying fog, Kearny's force became strung out and were caught in a disadvantageous position by General Pico's swift advance. Captain Abraham R. Johnston's advance guard, while still three-quarters of a mile from Pico's forces, was ordered by Kearny to "Trot!", which Johnston misunderstood as "Gallop!".&nbsp;Forty of the best mounted pulled far ahead of the main body of the force. The mules pulling the howitzers bolted, taking one of the guns with them. Pico's mounted force remained ahead of the pursuing U.S. forces. Their fresh horses and superior horsemanship allowed them to outmaneuver and lead the advance group of dragoons away from the main force. The Californios had a distinct advantage over the Americans in their knowledge of the terrain. A second separation developed until twenty-eight dragoons, including Kearny, were separated. Damp powder reduced the effectiveness of carbines to clubs and pistols to hammers, as described by a native woman that witnessed the battle. The Californios were armed with long lances and reatas (braided rawhide&nbsp;lariat), which they used with great effect. As a consequence, Johnston's charge was unsupported and his dragoons were forced to withdraw.As the leading element of the American attack drew close to a Kumeyaay&nbsp;village, the Californios wheeled back and fired their few firearms. At this time Captain Johnston was killed by a bullet. Pico then withdrew a half mile to higher ground.A second charge ordered by Capt. Benjamin D. Moore further separated the Americans, and the Californios met his dragoons with a&nbsp;counter charge&nbsp;by lancers.&nbsp;The charge was quickly surrounded, and Capt. Moore was killed. Gillespie arrived within fifteen minutes with the artillery. Mules are reluctant to wheel, and the horse-mounted Californios outflanked the Americans and captured one of the unattended howitzers. Gillespie's men unlimbered the remaining howitzer, John Sutter's Russian-made bronze four-pounder. Gillespie used a sabre to fight off a vicious personal attack made by a group of lancers in revenge for his previous actions during his occupation of Los Angeles and the broken agreement to cease hostilities. He took a lance thrust just over the heart that pierced a lung. Either this action (traditional U.S. view) or the unusual degree of bloodshed (traditional Californio view), prompted Pico to withdraw.The next day, December 7, 1846, after assurances by Dr. Griffin that the worst of the injured could be moved, Captain Turner marched the columnn toward San Diego. Californio lancers established a blocking position near what is now known as "Mule Hill". Captain Turner ordered Lieutenant William H. Emory&nbsp;and a squad of dragoons to engage and drive off the menacing lancers. With dry powder in their carbines, the dragoons easily forced the lancers away, while inflicting five dead among the fleeing Californios. That evening Kearny regained his command, established a strong defensive perimeter and then sent dispatches requesting urgent reinforcements, carried to Commodore Stockton by Lieutenant Edward Beale, Kit Carson and a young Indian guide. Under cover of darkness they each took different routes to the commodore's headquarters at San Diego, 28 miles to the south-southwest. Stockton quickly dispatched a unit of over 200 sailors and marines, whose arrival caused the Californios to disperse. Kearny had already determined the night before, December 9, to continue the march the next morning. Stockton's unit then escorted Kearny's battered troops to San Diego, where they arrived December 12. Dr. John S. Griffin, Kearny's surgeon, reported that the Americans had lost 17 killed and 18 wounded out of the 50 officers and men who engaged Pico's lancers. They buried the dead in a mass grave on the battlefield. When they arrived in San Diego, the wounded survivors were treated by their Californio guide's sister, Nurse Juanita Machado Alipas de Wrightington, known as the Florence Nightingale of San Diego for her charity work for the oppressed native peoples camped outside San Diego.General Kearny was promoted for his valiant actions at San Pasqual.Some time after the battle, General Kearny wrote that the U.S. had achieved victory since the Californios had "fled the field",&nbsp;but the Californios saw the engagement as their victory.&nbsp;The battle is unique, as it was one of the few military battles in the United States that involved elements of the Army, Navy, Marines, and civilian volunteers, all in the same skirmish.During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, historians debated which force won or lost the battle. Clearly, Kearny retained the battle area, the ability to operate and maneuver, and also the initiative, though his losses were higher. The victor of the battle is still debated.&nbsp;Certainly, these early experiences tempered Kearny's imposition of martial law on the Californio population and established a mutual degree of respect between the population and their new government administrators.

The Site of a costly, yet inconclusive battle between American forces and combined force of Mexican and loyalist Californio militias and lancers during the formers efforts to capture Los Angeles during Mexican War in December of 1846.

Battle of San Pasqual (Pascual)

The Mormon Battalion is one of the lesser-known chapters of religious and military history but offers significant lessons as the only example of an American military unit recruited from a single religion and officially designated as such. The battalion is the result of church leaders sending a representative to Washington D.C. in hopes of securing relief from years of persecution and support for the eventual western trek and settlement in Utah. The Mormon diplomat arrived in Washington just days after the war with Mexico began and was presented with a request and opportunity to recruit a battalion for federal service. Church leaders saw military service as a way to demonstrate loyalty to the U.S. in an era when many viewed LDS members with suspicion. Members of the Mormon Battalion arrived here after marching from Council Bluffs, Iowa. Some of the troops were later sent to San Luis Rey and Los Angeles, while others remained at this garrison. During that tie, the volunteer soldiers labored to support the construction of a variety of military and civilian structures, creating the bricks that would be used to build the first courthouse in San Diego.

Dedicated in 2010, this visitor center interprets the experiences of the members of the Mormon Battalion, a contingent of volunteers who arrived in San Diego in January of 1847 to support the American military garrison located here during the war between Mexico and the United States. Five companies totaling over 500 men had been mustered in at Council Bluffs, Iowa, on July 16, 1846. Along with 32 women, these men made the longest march in military history, walking 2,000 miles from Council Bluffs, Iowa, to San Diego. The visitor center replaced a previous facility and offers new exhibits while continuing to offer tours for visitors featuring led by missionaries from the LDS Church in period dress.

California Battles of the Mexican War

Presidio Museum of Monterey

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information