Classroom

In December 1835, during Texas’ war for independence from Mexico, a group of Texian volunteer soldiers occupied a former Franciscan mission located near the present-day city of San Antonio. On February 23, 1836, a Mexican force numbering in the thousands and led by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna began a siege of the mission which had been converted to a makeshift fort by the men inside. Though vastly outnumbered, the Alamo’s 200 defenders, commanded by James Bowie and William Travis and including the famed frontiersman Davy Crockett, held out courageously for 13 days before the Mexican invaders finally overpowered them. Texas Declaration of Independence was the formal declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. It was adopted at the Convention of 1836 at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 2, 1836, and formally signed the next day.&nbsp; Although a bloody defeat,&nbsp;the Battle of the Alamo became an enduring symbol for Texans who favored independence from Mexico. Today, the act of resistance is central to the identity of many Texans. This experiential display of that history blends reenactors with technology and should appeal to families. The organization that operates the space offer an interactive audio guide app for smartphones as well as 250 artifacts in the physical exhibit.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Video

Battle for Texas: The Experience website 

Website

H. W. Brands: Lone Star Nation: The Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence

Book

Great Plains Quarterly. Review of Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of
a Texas Experience

More Info

History of the Alamo: resources for teachers

Located just a few blocks away from The Alamo, this interactive museum-like experience can be found in the Shops at River Center. Designed to entertain visitors who arrive in the River Walk, this for-profit "edutainment" gallery reinforces the popular interpretation of the Battle of the Alamo. At the same time, the galleries of this space are also full of artifacts from the time period and provide an opportunity to explore the way that the Alamo has been interpreted.  

Battle for Texas: The Experience

Instructor

This extended walking tour includes nearly three dozen landmarks along San Antonio's famed River Walk. The tour starts just east of the River Walk, with stops at Casa Navarro State Historic Site, the home of William Sydney Porter (better known as "O. Henry") the Spanish Governor's Palace, and San Fernando De Bexar Cathedral. The tour includes the Alamo, several art and history museums, and many historic buildings, markers, murals, and theaters along the River Walk as it returns near its starting location. After enjoying this walk, be sure to visit Hemisfair Park and search Clio for museums and historic sites throughout the San Antonio metro.

Jose Antonio Navarro was born in the Viceroyalty of New Spain (today called San Antonio) in 1795, the eighth of 12 children born to Don Angel Navarro. His father, Don Angel, once a runaway and servant,&nbsp;was already&nbsp;a successful merchant and politician by the time of Jose's birth. Sadly, at the age of 13, Don Angel passed away, and Jose returned home from school to work and help take care of his family. However, as his family increasingly aligned themselves with the revolutionaries against the Spanish colonial powers, they found themselves targeted by Spanish authorities who confiscated their land. Finally when Navarro was only 18 years old, he, his uncle, and other family members were forced to flee to Louisiana (land which had only recently been purchased by the U.S.).&nbsp; When he returned three years later, Mexico was an independent country. Unfortunately,&nbsp;Navarro found his mother and family living in poverty and near-destitution. He quickly turned to the one (and illegal) means of income: selling the native mustangs to neighboring Louisiana. He, like his father, quickly became a successful merchant, leader, and politician. He married another native San Antonio Tejana named&nbsp;Margarita de la Garza y Flores, and they had seven children together. As Mexico initially welcomed Anglo-American settlers into the Texan state of Mexico, Navarro developed friendships with the Americans and began to see the future of Texas in a different light. Stephen F. Austin became a particularly important friend. Not all their actions were necessarily commendable: together, as Navarro stood in the state legislature, they made sure that Texas admitted slaves into the state &nbsp;as lifelong "indentured servants." This would keep American settlers coming and helped with their own businesses. One of two native Tejanos to sign the Texas Declaration of Independence in 1835, Navarro helped write the new Texan Constitution. In 1841, the president of Texas,&nbsp;Mirabeau Bonaparte Lamar, requested that Navarro go on an expedition to Santa Fe to convince the New Mexican population to join the revolution and Texas. Though Navarro opposed the plan, he agreed to go. Mexican authorities, however, seized Navarro and the other members of the expedition in Santa Fe. They were sent on a 2,000-mile march to Mexico City, during which many of the team died. Once there, Navarro was tortured and interrogated under terrible conditions. He was offered freedom only if he would renounce Texas, against which he refused. In early 1845, Navarra managed to escape, arriving back at his ranch on February 18, 1845. Though relations between Tejanos and Anglo-Texans had deteriorated (most Anglo-Texans did not distinguish between Mexicans and Spanish-speaking Tejanos), Navarro was hailed as a hero by both the Tejanos and the Ango-Texans. Both during its time as an independent country and later as a state within the United States, Navarra always used his influence to campaign on behalf of the Tejano population.

Today, Jose Antonio Navarro is considered a true patriot and father of Texas and this house,  his former home, has become a place to remember and be inspired by his courage. One of only two native-born Tejanos (and one of three Mexicans) to sign the Texan Declaration of Independence, Navarro became a lifelong leader and politician who campaigned for the rights of the Tejanos as Anglo-Texans made their mark on society. Navarro's simple adobe home and the surrounding structures now comprise the Casa Navarro State Historic Site; it is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The site is an excellent place to begin to explore the contributions of this unique man. 

Casa Navarro State Historic Site

O. Henry William Sydney Porter was born on September 11, 1862 in Greensboro, North Carolina. He showed an interest in reading at a young age but did not become a writer—specifically, a short-story writer—until his mid-twenties. He, in fact, tried a number of things before settling on a writing career. He began working in his uncle's drugstore when he was 19 and showed an aptitude for drawing when he would sketch the people who came into the store (they admired his work). He moved to Texas in 1882 for health reasons; he had a cough that wouldn't go away and thought the drier air would help. There, he got a job working on a ranch and his health did indeed get better. He even learned some German and Spanish from the farmhands who worked at the ranch. He was well liked and could play the mandolin and guitar well. Around the mid-1880s, Porter&nbsp;met his future wife, Athol, and they married in 1887. Knowing that he had an interest in writing, Athol encouraged him to write, which he began to do initially as a hobby.&nbsp;&nbsp; In the coming years, Porter did a number of things. In&nbsp;1887, he&nbsp;got a job working as a draftsman for the Texas General Land Office where he drew maps. Around this time he&nbsp;started a humorous weekly called&nbsp;The Rolling Stone, which&nbsp;ultimately failed. He also got a job working in a bank&nbsp;and for&nbsp;the&nbsp;Houston Post where he was a reporter, columnist, and cartoonist. While working at the bank, Porter was charged with embezzlement in 1896 and fled to Honduras just before the trial started. It was there that Porter started to write his first collection of short stories called Cabbages and Kings. It appears that Athol&nbsp;and their daughter went with him but they did not stay long and returned to Texas. After they returned, Athol became seriously ill from tuberculosis. Upon hearing that she was dying, Porter returned and was allowed to be by her side until she passed away in 1897. He was then sentenced to prison for five years. Life wasn't so bad inside; he worked in the pharmacy and had his own room in the hospital. He also continued to write and came up with the pseudonym "O. Henry". Remarkably, over a dozen of his stories were published while in prison. His career took off in 1902 when he moved to New York City.&nbsp;Cabbages and Kings was published 1904 and his second collection,&nbsp;The Four Million, was published in 1906. In one year, he also wrote one story a week for&nbsp;The New York World Sunday magazine. He wrote his most famous story, The Gift of the Magi, in 1905 and it was included in&nbsp;The Four Million.&nbsp; Unfortunately, Porter was a heavy drinker. His output began to decrease in 1908 and he died of cirrhosis of the liver and other health problems in 1910. His literary legacy was assured, however. In 1952, the film "O. Henry's Full House"&nbsp;starring Marilyn Monroe was released. It was comprised of five of Porter's short stories. Additionally, several stories and poems were published in the years after his death.

Built in 1555 by German settler John Kush, this small historic house was where American writer William Sydney Porter (1862-1910), better known as "O. Henry," lived from 1885-1886. It is located on the corner of Dolorosa and Santa Rosa Avenue in downtown San Antonio, just a block away from the Spanish Governor's Palace. The house is a contributing property of the Main and Military Plazas Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It appears to be open to the public but only on a limited basis or by appointment.

O. Henry House

Jose Francisco Ruiz was born on his family's ranch on January 29, 1783 in San Antonio, which was then a Spanish fort called the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar and located in the province of Spanish Texas. His parents were Juan Manuel Ruiz and María Manuela de la Peña. It appears he well educated and, apparently, completed his schooling in Spain. He became the schoolmaster of San Antonio in 1803 and taught in the family house (the house survived and was relocated in 1943 to the Witte Museum where it is open to the public). Two years later, Ruiz was elected to serve on the city council.He began his military career in 1811 when he joined the Béxar Provincial Militia with the rank of lieutenant. He later joined the Republican Army and fought against the Spanish crown on August 18, 1813 at the Battle of Medina, which Spanish forces won. The Spanish general placed on bounty on Ruiz's head, forcing Ruiz to flee and live in exile. Until around 1822, he moved around and spent a long period of time with the Comanche Indians. In 1821, Mexican Emperor Agustín de Iturbide ordered Ruiz to negotiate peace with the Comanches and Lipan Indians. After returning to Texas in 1822, he was appointed to the mounted militia. In 1824, he was promoted to captain with the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1826, he was sent to command a post in Nacogdoches and help quell a rebellion there. In the late 1820s, back in San Antonio, Ruiz wrote a book called the "Report on the Indian Tribes of Texas."In 1830, Ruiz was ordered to command Fort Tenoxtitlán, which was located in present-day Burleson County, to prevent more Americans from settling in Texas. It was an unenviable post. The fort was isolated and vulnerable to attack, and obtaining food was difficult. Soldiers often deserted as well. In 1832, Ruiz was permitted to abandon the fort and returned to San Antonio. He retired and received his military pay from the Mexican government.During the next few years, Ruiz turned against Mexico and became a supporter of Texas independence. In February 1836, he served as one of the 59 delegates to the Convention of 1836 in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas, where the Texas Declaration of Independence was written. It was there that Ruiz and the only other delegate born in Texas, José Antonio Navarro, signed the Declaration on March 2. The last major engagement of the revolution was the Texian victory at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, which cemented Texas' independence. However, Mexico never officially recognized the Republic of Texas. Ruiz was elected as senator to the First Congress of the Republic in October and served until September of the next year. Ruiz was married and had four children, one of whom was Francisco Antonio, who was the alcalde (magistrate) of San Antonio during the Battle of the Alamo. Ruiz owned land in and around San Antonio as well in other counties. He died on January 19, 1840 in San Antonio.

This historical marker commemorates politician, teacher, and military officer, Jose Francisco Ruiz (1783-1840), who participated in the Mexican War of Independence from Spain (1811-1815) and was a key figure in the Texas Revolution (1835-1836) against the Mexican government. Ruiz was one of only two native Texans who signed the Texas Declaration of Independence. He is also known for teaching in the first school in San Antonio, serving as an interpreter and negotiator with the Comanche Indians, and for his civic and business activities. The marker is located just outside of the University of Texas-San Antonio San Pedro 1 building.

Jose Francisco Ruiz Historical Marker

The building was built during the 18th century being planned in 1722 and completed around 1749. There is a front entrance with the coat-of-arms symbol created by Spanish King Ferdinand VI dated in 1749. The Spanish Governor's Palace is a single-story, U-shaped building. The palace was built with thick stone walls covered in lime plaster and the rear opens out onto a large courtyard and a patio. It was apart of the Spanish Texas period when Spain established a presence in the future Southwest United States.It became the home of the presidio captain and later as the home of Spanish Governors that ruled over the area. Afterwards, it was renovated into a capitol building for the region in 1772. The building was purchased by E. Hermann Altgelt in the 1860s. He lived in the residence at various points with his wife and family. After he passed away, his wife held the residence into the early 1900s. Afterwards, the building fell into a state of disrepair and was used for various commercial purposes, but they did not serve it’s historical preservation. The building was only saved for preservation when it had deteriorated to the point of no longer being safe for residents. By the 1920s, at various points, the different rooms had been the places of all sorts of industry. The front entrance had once been the "Hole-in-the-Wall Bar," which advertised nickel beer. The chapel had once been a clothing store. The ballroom had been a produce shop and the room beyond it had been a tailor shop. The building had also housed a school at one point.The city purchased the building in 1928 and restored it in 1929. Most of the rock and brick walls had remained intact and required only re-plastering. Walls that did require replacing were carefully laid on the basis of the still-existing foundations to as closely mimic the original 18th century residence as possible. Much of the other features throughout the palace are originals, such as much of the tile flooring and the wooden lintels over the doorways. Other pieces which had to be recreated were done as closely as possible so as to match the original design, such as the hand-carved doors and the building's roof. The interior was furnished with Spanish colonial period pieces allowing visitors to seemingly step back in time. Today, it is a public history museum and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.

Planned in 1722, The Spanish Governor's Palace hails from the Spanish Texas period. Constructed around 1749, it is considered to be the only remaining example of an 18th-century Spanish aristocratic residence in all of Texas. It was originally built as the residence of the commanding officer, Presidio San Antonio de Bexar (the fort which had accompanied the building of the San Antonio de Valero Mission, which was also later known as the Alamo). When San Antonio became the capital of the Province of Texas in 1772, the residence became the house of all 32 governors that ruled between 1772 and 1804. Today, it is now open to the public as a historical museum.

Spanish Governor's Palace

The church was renamed San Fernando Cathedral in honor of 13th century Spanish ruler Ferdinand III of Castile. The church was originally built by settlers from the Canary Islands and then expanded in the Gothic Revival style under the direction of architect Francois P. Giraud in 1868. The church became the seat of the Archdiocese of San Antonio.San Fernando Cathedral played an integral role in the Battle of the Alamo: in 1836, Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna declared the beginning of the blockade by raising a flag from the tower of the cathedral. According to the National Park Service, "James Bowie, defender of the Alamo, was married in the original chapel and local tradition maintains that the remains of the defenders of the Alamo are buried in the new section of the cathedral."Pope John Paul II visited San Fernando Cathedral in September of 1987, and a marble marker at the church memorializes the event.The cathedral went under a large $15 million dollar renovation in 2003 and is still an operating parish. Today, the church building draws much attention from tourists for its copious amount of ornate carvings and stained glass.

Built between 1728 and 1749, the San Fernando Cathedral was first known as Church of Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria y Guadalupe and served as the parish church of Villa San Fernando de Bexar, which was the first civil settlement in Texas when it was ruled as a province of Spain. The church played a role in the Battle of the Alamo in the 19th century and was visited by Pope John Paul II in the late 20th century. San Fernando Cathedral stands as the oldest church congregation as well as church building in the whole state of Texas. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as well as has been documented by the Historic American Building Survey.

San Fernando De Bexar Cathedral 

Designed by J. Reily Gordon, Bexar County Courthouse is a beautiful Romanesque Revival historic building erected in 1896. Given its location on the Main Plaza and and near San Fernando Cathedral, the courthouse is among the city's more important landmarks, still serving as the center of local and regional judicial activity. It was built with native Texas granite and red sandstone, and features towers, a tile roof, and several colonnades. A number of additions were built in the coming decades after it was built, reaching its current size by the early 1970s. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, it is the fourth courthouse of the county; the first was erected in the early 1740s. 

Bexar County Courthouse 

This historical marker indicates the location of a military fortification discovered in 2007 during renovations of the Main Plaza. Other sites were found as well. They date to the time of the Texas Revolutionary period (1835-1836) and likely would have been part of the defensive fortifications protecting San Antonio during the Siege of Bexar (San Antonio, October-December 1835). During excavation, archaeologists found military-related artifacts such as a gun barrel, sword tip, and a gunflint. There was a trench at this location that had a wooden palisade. Behind it, evidence indicates that additional fortifications were built, possibly gun batteries.

Main Plaza Fortifications - Historical Marker

Seguín was born on May 26, 1782 here in San Antonio, the third of seven children. Around 1800 he married&nbsp;María Josefa Becerra, who was a daughter of a noncommissioned offer; they had three children together, two of whom survived until adulthood. During these early years of their marriage,&nbsp;Seguín helped establish the city's first public school in 1812. He also acquired land&nbsp;that&nbsp;once belonged to the San Antonio de Valero&nbsp;mission (aka, the Alamo) about 30 miles away, hiring vaqueros (Mexican cowboys) to run it.&nbsp; Seguín came to support Mexico's rebellion against Spain during the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821). He initially supported Spain and helped quell a revolt in San Antonio in January 1811. His loyalties came under suspicion, however, in 1813 and he was labeled a traitor and fired from his job as postmaster. Seguín was not cleared of these charges until 1818 and assumed his position as postmaster once again.&nbsp; From December 1823 to September 1824, Seguín&nbsp;served as the aforementioned Texas representative in Mexico during the Convention of 1824. He was a member of&nbsp;the colonization committee, where he promoted the interests of American settlers in Texas and other issues. After returning to San Antonio, he enlarged his ranch, planted cotton and corn,&nbsp;and continued to&nbsp;raised cattle, horses, and&nbsp;mules.&nbsp; The decade leading up to the Texas Revolution was one of tension between the Mexican government and Texans (American colonists and Tejanos). The Mexican government had become increasingly centralized and citizens' rights diminished. Immigration from the U.S. was also becoming more limited. As for&nbsp;Seguín, who supported the rebellion, he&nbsp;was once again removed from his job postmaster, this time&nbsp;by Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos. Seguín was forced to walk to his ranch but it was there that he supplied the Texian Army with food and supplies. Both Mexican and Texian armies raided his ranch. In 1840, the newly created Republic of Texas reimbursed him $3,004 for his efforts. In the last period of his life, Seguín worked on his ranch. He passed away on October 30, 1857.

This historical marker, which is situated on E. Nueva Street on the grounds of Bexar County Courthouse, describes the life of prominent San Antonio businessman and politician Erasmo Seguín (1782-1857), whose home was near this location. His most notable political role was serving as San Antonio postmaster from 1807 to 1835. He was also the only representative from Texas to go to the Mexican Constitutional Convention of 1824 (Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821), where he supported colonization by American settlers to Texas. Over a decade later, he supported the Texas Revolution (1835-1836), the uprising that established the Republic of Texas. 

Near Homesite of Erasmo Seguín - Historical Marker

Built in 1929 after two years of construction, the Tower Life Building is one of San Antonio's most beloved buildings. Reaching a height of 404 feet (504 feet to the top of the flagpole), the eight-sided structure was designed in the Late Gothic Revival style and has served as an office building. It was the city's tallest building for 59 years until the Marriott Rivercenter hotel was built in 1988. LocaI real estate firm Smith Bros. Properties originally envisioned it to be one of the components of a large complex of structures called Bowen's Island Skyscrapers. Only a few buildings, including the Tower Life Buildings, were built before the Great Depression halted the project. The Tower Life Building was renovated in 2010, which included the removal of an obsolete television tower and replaced by the flagpole. The building added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1991. 

Tower Life Building

Today, there are many bridges spanning the San Antonio River. However, when early travelers and settlers came through the area, they sought places where they could cross the water with their horses and wagons. The area near the Navarro Street Bridge provided a gentle crossing point and thus ensured a relatively safe passage. El Camino Real, the road that stretched from San Antonio to Nacogdoches, traversed the river at this place. Initially known as the Alamo Crossing, it was one of the first routes between the Alamo and the Villa de San Fernando. For families traveling in horse-drawn wagons, or for individuals riding on horseback, the crossing was shallow enough for wading on foot.In 1847, Nat Lewis founded a grist mill at this location, and farmers could bring sacks of grain here for grind into cornmeal and flour. The site later became known as the Old Mill Crossing. As recounted by a local historian on the Memories of San Antonio blog, an unintended benefit for wagon-drivers who traversed the river was that the process of crossing resulted in naturally tightening the wheels of their wagons, as the wood absorbed water and expanded against the vehicle's metal rims. In addition, there were usually a few boys who would stand in the water and offer to wash the wagons or buggies of people traveling across the river, in exchange for a small sum. Thus, it would seem, that generations before the invention of the automobile and the neighborhood "car wash," these entrepreneurial youths found a way to earn a few pennies through their practical thinking and commitment to the task at hand.The mural on the exterior wall of the Hotel Contessa commemorates this site as the Old Mill Crossing. The colorful work of tile art, which includes 154 separate tiles, was overseen by Ethel Wilson Harris. A founding member and former president of the San Antonio Conservation Society, Harris worked to preserve many landmarks throughout the city. She contributed to the creation of several titled murals in San Antonio, including two along the River Walk, while serving as the local technical director of the Arts and Crafts Division of the federal Works Progress Administration (WPA). In the lower left corner of the mural, she incorporated a WPA craftsman's mark that includes the year in which the project was completed (1942). Under the mural are wide stone benches, each containing a decorative tile characteristic of Mexican Arts and Crafts traditions that Harris championed. In 1943, she was recognized by the Texas State Legislature for her role in celebrating and promoting the rich heritage of Mexican Arts and Crafts.The Old Mill Crossing Mural was commissioned by the Daughters of Texas Trail Drivers, who dedicated it to the memory of their fathers. On each corner of the mural, a blue tile is emblazoned with one of four historic cattle brands associated with the cattle farmers who traversed the river with their animals at this spot. A book titled, The Trail Drivers of Texas: Interesting Sketches of Early Cowboys, published in the 1920s but reissued in 2010 by the University of Texas Press, chronicles the lives of these early trail drivers. They have been described as "rugged men—and, sometimes, women—who drove cattle and horses up the trails from Texas to northern markets in the late 1800s." Based on oral histories collected from the Old Time Trail Drivers' Association, the book features "hundreds of real-life stories—some humorous, some chilling, some rambling, all interesting."

The Old Mill Crossing Mural and Historical Marker commemorates a geographical crossing point along the San Antonio River that was widely used by travelers and settlers, including cattle farmers who crossed the river with their animals at this spot. Because this portion of the river was both shallow and gentle, it afforded relatively safe passage, becoming part of El Camino Real, the road which led from San Antonio to Nacogdoches. Initially, this site was known as Alamo Crossing, until Nat Lewis established a grist mill here in 1847, and it later became known as Old Mill Crossing. To commemorate the site, a mural was commissioned by the Daughters of Texas Trail Drivers in honor of their fathers, with artwork created as part of a federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) project in 1942. Historical text embedded within the mural also recognizes this location as "the last known place where horses drank and forded the San Antonio River." The project was supervised by Ethel Wilson Harris, an artisan and patron of the arts who served as the local technical director for the Arts and Crafts Division of the WPA. Completed in 1943, the mural appears on the exterior of the Hotel Contessa along the River Walk.

Old Mill Crossing Mural and Historical Marker

This historical marker is accompanied by a sculpture created by artist Roland Brisenso symbolizing the first Catholic mass held in San Antonio on June 13, 1691, which was presided by Padre (father) Padre Damian Massanet. A day earlier, the first Spanish expedition to traverse Texas reached what they quickly named the San Antonio River. They named it as such because June 13 happened to the feast day of St. Anthony of Padua. While this is how the city got its name, it was not official founded until 1718. The marker and sculpture were installed in 1991.

Padre Damian Massanet's Table - Historical Marker and Sculpture

Throughout the course of Texas history and the history of the United States, the heritage and culture of African Americans has sometimes been overlooked. For decades and even centuries, African Americans have been viewed as a stepping stone in the makeup of the country and the state of Texas. The San Antonio African American Community Archive and Museum was created to shed some much-needed light on the role African Americans have played in the shaping of the city. The city of San Antonio needed a museum that would detail the specifics of the history of African Americans in San Antonio and their role in the make-up of the city.San Antonio is a city that is predominantly Hispanic largely due to it being a major city in New Spain in 1718 when the first group of Spanish settlers arrived on the banks of the San Antonio river. During the historic battle at the Alamo during the fight for Texas independence from Mexico in the 1800s, African Americans aided in that battle siding with Davy Crockett and his troops. One African American in particular contributed in a major way during the battle at the Alamo, and the person was named Joe. Joe was a 21-year-old slave who assisted Alamo garrison commander William Barret Travis during the Battle of the Alamo. Although, most of that portion of history has been overlooked throughout so many years, the SAACAM has been able to provide people that desire to learn this history the opportunity to do so. SAAACAM offers other services that are not only specific to those of African American decent, the center also offers educational opportunities for other races of people to learn as well.The mission for this facility is “To collect, preserve and share the cultural heritage of African Americans in the San Antonio region.” This mission is vitally important because so much of the history of African Americans in San Antonio has been intentionally forgotten. Slavery in Texas is far from forgotten or an afterthought because after all, its role in the course of Texas history helped shape the course of the state’s history as we know it.Texas gained its independence from Mexico in 1836, it wasn’t annexed by the United States until 9 years later because it was a slave state. Although slavery was opposed by the Mexican government, slavery in Texas was accepted by the southern states. Texas was home to an excess of 5,000 slaves by the start of the Texas Revolution. Slavery in San Antonio was unlike slavery in the State of Texas because the city only held 168 slaves of the approximate 3,000 in population in the city. African American men and women that were slaves in San Antonio helped in the battle at the Alamo. African American men were used to fight in the battle but were only referred to by their first names such as Joe, Ben, or Sam. African American women were more of the helpmate, such as cooks, laundry, and fabrication engineers. The videos that are shown in grade school are mere productions of certain events that have taken place. They are romanticized because of the vulgarity and the amount of blood that was shed at the hands of cruel, inhumane slave owners. The videos that are shown in most schools throughout the state are videos of how slaves worked fields, how they were treated as property versus human beings and how they were used to grow the economy for white slave owners. These videos also showed how slaves were brutally beaten and/or killed for defiance or trying to escape plantations. Other details in the museum demonstrate how innovative African Americans were when it came to inventing products that aided them in their work. Slaveowners often stole these ideas and passed them off as their own. African Americans were taken advantage off during these times largely in part that either they could not read or write, slave owners promised them a share off the profits and never came through with their promises, or African Americans did not have knowledge on how to promote their product. Some of the educational opportunities at SAAACAM are, Race Ed, the Black History River Cruise, the Black History Film Series, and an Oral History Workshop. It also offers health screenings, fundraising opportunities that would allow patrons to learn about the Negro League Baseball Era and how African Americans were integrated in the Whites Only game.

Located in the La Villita Historic Village, the San Antonio African American Community Archive and Museum (SAAACAM) was established in 2017 to preserve and promote the city's African American cultural heritage. Part of this effort is to explore the history of Spaniards, Mexicans, Germans, and Canary Islanders who lived here and whose heritage is linked to the African American community. SAAACAM's programming and initiatives include creating a digital archive of artifacts, offering pop-up exhibits, and Black history riverwalk tours.

San Antonio African American Community Archive and Museum

Built as part of a San Antonio River beautification program, the Arneson River Theater is a cultural venue on the Paseo del Rio, San Antonio's River Walk. An open-air theater, the small stage is located on one side of the river, while the amphitheater-style seating is located on the other. Audiences are able to watch the live performances from across the river while seated on the tiered stone steps, which are covered with a thin layer of grass. The acoustics are unique, as the river naturally carries the sound of the performance from the stage to the amphitheater. The venue was designed by the architect Robert H.H. Hugman, who was known as "the father of the River Walk" for his overall vision and design plan for the interactive, walkable landscape. When bells were added to the stone arches behind the theater's stage many years later, Hugman was invited to come and ring the bells during a special ceremony, which was held two years before he died.Each summer, the Arneson River Theater hosts Fiesta Noche del Rio (Party Night on the River), celebrating the songs and dances of Mexico, Argentina, Spain, and Texas. Sponsored by the Alamo Kiwanis Club, the festival began in 1957, making it the longest continuously operating outdoor theater event in the United States. Saturday night performances are still held from the beginning of June through early August. The Alamo Kiwanis Club was founded in 1947 as a charitable organization within the city, and the funds that are raised from Fiesta Noche del Rio benefit causes serving local children, with over $2.5 million raised from the event to date. Adjacent to the outdoor amphitheater is La Villita, San Antonio's earliest Spanish village, now an art district and historic site with shops and galleries filled with traditional arts and crafts. A rounded arch passageway provides pedestrian access connecting this site with the Arneson River Theater.Over the years, the Arneson River Theater has hosted various theatrical performances, from tuba concerts to performances by the acclaimed Mexican American singer, Rosita Fernández, who was known as "San Antonio’s First Lady of Song." Although Tejano music was initially a male-dominated musical style, Fernández became one of the first female performers of the style to be heard the radio and one of the first Tejana recording artists. At the height of her musical career, she performed for U.S. presidents and international leaders. She also had a long career in film and television. At the Arneson River Theater, Fernández performed for over 26 years, from 1957 to 1984, as the star of the annual summer festival. Because she usually entered the stage from the picturesque bridge next to the theater, in 1982 city officials dedicated the bridge in her honor, renaming it "Rosita's Bridge."The Fiesta Noche del Rio is entertaining as well as educational for many viewers, as it shares aspects of the city's Spanish heritage. This is reflected through the performance of Latin dances such as flamenco, tango, and salsa, as well as through the music of different countries and regions. Songs are performed by Mariachi bands, flamenco guitarists, and singers, while dancers wear elaborate, colorful costumes that reflect their heritage and traditions. Described as an "annual extravaganza," the summertime event includes seven acts in each performance, beginning with a theme song and concluding with a grand finale. Due to the theater's small scale and proximity to the audience, performers will sometimes invite audience members onto the stage to join them in the dances, and performers are often available to talk with theatergoers after the event. In addition to the amphitheater seating, the small riverboats which traverse the river directly in front of the theater offer a prime view of the performance, as the boats pass briefly by the stage.

Built from 1939 to 1941, the Arneson River Theater is a seasonal cultural venue on the Paseo del Rio, San Antonio's River Walk. Each summer, from early June through the beginning of August, the open-air theater is the site of Fiesta Noche del Rio. Sponsored by the Alamo Kiwanis Club, a local charitable organization, the festival features Mariachi bands, flamenco guitarists, Latin singers, and traditional dance performances, including tango and salsa. The Mexican American singer, Rosita Fernández, hailed as "San Antonio’s First Lady of Song," performed at the festival from 1957 to 1984. Arneson River Theater was named for Edwin P. Arneson, who worked as a regional engineer for the federal Works Progress Administration (WPA). The venue was designed by Robert H.H. Hugman, the architect whose original vision and overall design for the landscape led to the creation of the San Antonio River Walk.

Arneson River Theater

The Coahuiltecan likely founded the first huts of what today is La Villita&nbsp;around 1722 after Spanish soldiers moved into the area. Spanish soldiers' families (many of whom were from local populations such as the Coahuiltecan)&nbsp;began filling the huts, which were separated from&nbsp;the "more aristocratic" Canary Islanders, who lived on the other side of the river. In 1773, however, La Villita began receiving refugees from East Texas. By 1811, there was growing discomfort with the Spanish rule. When Juan Bautista de Las Casas decided to seize power, he enlisted from the Quartel&nbsp;barracks of La Villita to power his coup. Under Casas direction, revolutionaries successfully arrested&nbsp;Gov. Salcedo and Lt. Col. Herrara and removed them from power for a total of 39 days. However, Casas did not turn out to be the most popular man, and some revolutionaries, disgruntled with his short rule, returned to the royalists, who quickly defeated him. It would take another decade for Mexicans to gain true independence from Spanish rule in 1821. The flood in 1819 (along with the growing wealth of some Spanish soldiers)&nbsp;changed the architectural setting of La Villita. Fancier and more permanent homes began to exist alongside the poorer huts of other soldiers' families. La Villita&nbsp;played a significant role in its later place in Texan history. In 1839, the then-president of Mexico,&nbsp;Antonio Lopez de&nbsp;Santa Anna, sent Martin Perfecto de Cos to investigate Texans near San Antonio, who refused to pay duties. Bringing 300 soldiers with him, General Cos intended to arrest many of the Texan critics of the dictator. Instead, Cos ran into the militias organized by Stephen F. Austin and Edward Burleson. Following the Seige of Bexar, Cos surrendered to the Texan troops at&nbsp;515 Villita Street. In the 1840s, German immigrants, followed later by Swiss and French immigrants, brought a European twist to the neighborhood. German, Swiss, and French cultures mixed with the original Indian, Spanish, Mexican, and Anglo cultures, creating a unique village. Unfortunately, in the early 1900s the neighborhood deteriorated significantly, as other places gained popularity in San Antonio. On October 12, 1939, Mayor Maury Maverick led the city of San Antonio to begin a restoration project of La Villita. The National Youth Administration assisted in the restoration, with over 1,800 youths trained in various types of art and crafts through the project. Except while used as a Red Cross Center during World War II, La Villita has been utilized ever since as center to preserve the unique cultural heritage of San Antonio through art and crafts. In 1972, the twenty-seven buildings of the neighborhood were added to the National Register of Historic Places.

On the south bank of the San Antonio River, La Villita is one of the oldest neighborhoods in San Antonio. Coahuiltecan were likely the first to build small huts along the river. It later developed into a collection of huts for families of Spanish soldiers stationed at the Mission San Antonio de Valero (now better-known as the Alamo). A flood in 1819 inspired residents to begin building more permanent structures, such as brick and adobe homes. Towards the end of the 19th century, immigrants from other European countries, such as France and Germany, were settling in the growing neighborhood. They brought with them European styles and expertise in professions such as banking, teaching, and business. In 1939, Mayor Maury Maverick led a restoration effort, which ultimately transformed the neighborhood into the art village it is today. Today galleries, craft shops, and cafes line the streets of La Villita.

La Villita Historic Arts Village

The library was built in the 1930s and operated until 1968 when it became home to the Hertzberg Circus museum. That closed in 2005 and the building was renovated over the next several years until the Briscoe Western Art Museum opened in 2013. Governor Briscoe and his wife, Janey, spearheaded the effort to establish the museum. It is also home to the Jack Guenther Pavilion and the McNutt Courtyard and Sculpture Garden, and hosts several events, including Tuesday Nights @ the Briscoe, West Gallery Talks, a book club, tours, a film series, the Yanaguana Indian Arts Market, a lecture series, and Lil Partners, which is designed for children and families.

Named for the late Texas governor Dolph Briscoe Jr., the Briscoe Western Art Museum takes visitors through a visual and educational journey spanning five centuries of American West and Texas history, art, and culture through art and artifact exhibits. Permanent exhibits explore Native American cultures, the building itself which used to be the city's first public library building, the life and legacy of Governor Briscoe, the Hispanic influence in Texas, Western art created by women, and traditional cowboy arts. The museum also offers rotating and temporary exhibits.

Briscoe Western Art Museum 

A local organization of business professionals called the Asociacin de Empresarios Mexicanos commissioned the work as gift to the city to represent the cooperation and close relationship between the three countries. The bright red sculpture stands prominently in the center of a traffic circle in the heart of downtown near the famed riverwalk. Not everyone approved, however. Some did not like its design or questioned the use of public funds to erect it. Others objected to the location itself because the site may have been where captured defenders of the Alamo were executed. In 2019, the sculpture was repainted. It has been vandalized with graffiti a couple of times since then. Sebastián was born in Camargo, Chihuahua in 1947. His large sculptures can be seen throughout Mexico and around the world. One of his most famous works is the "Cabeza de Caballo" (horse's head) in Mexico City. Sebastián also creates smaller sculptures and other forms of art including furniture, paintings, and jewelry.

The Torch of Friendship, "La Antorcha de la Amistad" in Spanish, is a large sculpture created by Mexican artist Enrique Carbjal González (b. 1947), who goes by the name Sebastián. The sculpture, which is almost 65 feet tall and weighs over 45 tons, consists of two iron columns that rise until they are connected by a curled "bridge." Unveiled to the public on June 27, 2002, it symbolizes the friendship between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. It is now one of the city's most well-known landmarks.

Torch of Friendship

Fencing material that could protect crops from cattle
was lacking during the westward expansion of the 1870s. The ditches, mud fences,
and thorny hedges that Texans used to substitute for the stone and wood fences that worked in the East were too expensive in the more arid climate of the Great Plains where lumber was more scarce. While thorns and wire wouldn’t work independently,
Joseph F. Glidden of Illinois combined the two to create an empire. On November
24, 1874, Glidden received a patent for his new fencing, which consisted of
barbs wrapped around a strand of wire and twisted to hold their place. Of hundreds
of designs, this one proved to be most successful. In May 1876, Glidden, in
partnership with Isaac Ellwood, sold his interests to Washburn and Moen, a
Massachusetts-based wire manufacturer. This manufacturer was eventually absorbed
by United States Steel Corporation, which resulted in a near-monopoly for the fencing.

A representative of Glidden and Ellwood’s Barbed Fence
Company, Henry Sanborn, traveled to Texas in 1875 to sell their new product. While
he did sell in the state, he did not make it into the large potential market. So,
the following year Pete McManus and his partner John Warne “Bet-A-Million” Gates
managed to put on a successful demonstration of their “Winner” wire on the Alamo
Plaza in San Antonio, calling their product “light as air, stronger than whiskey,
and cheap as dirt.” Their wire managed to hold a herd of provoked longhorns in
a corral in front of an astonished crowd, which led to Gates becoming the world’s
largest barbed wire manufacturer. He later went on to help found the Texas
Company which later became Texaco.

Pioneer Charles Goodnight saw the need for clear
grazing rights, which brought an end to the open range upon which the early
cattle industry had been built. By enclosing herds, controlled livestock
breeding was much easier, which severely damaged the need for longhorn cattle
who were used to the open range. Barbed wire also brought an end to the long
cattle drives and Indian raids of the time.

At this location in 1876, John Warne “Bet-A-Million” Gates and his partner Pete McManus demonstrated the potential of barbed wire for ranchers in the Southern Great Plains by herding their cattle into a pen lined with the wire. This historical marker shares the story of Gates, a barbed wire salesman who demonstrated the effectiveness of barbed wire in a way that launched his influential career. Spectators were amazed at the effectiveness of his product, and demand for barbed wire spread across the Texas ranches. Gates later set out on his own, selling barbed wire before branching out to energy and founding of the Texas Company, later known as Texaco. Gates influenced both the oil industry and ranching, two industries that shaped the nature of Texas and the American West.

1876 Barbed Wire Demonstration Historical Marker 

Established in 1859, the Menger hotel has been a fixture in the West for over a century. Billed as one of the greatest hotels in the western United States, it has hosted scores of historical figures over its storied lineage. However, it is most known as the rendezvous point of the First Volunteer Cavalry unit led by Theodore Roosevelt himself, the Rough Riders. The Rough Riders were one of three cavalry units formed out of necessity during the Spanish-American War, when the United States military saw itself as having very little capability to both defend its borders and mount any sort of support overseas. Technically led by Col. Leonard Wood, the detachment was led in practice by Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt. Drawing forces from all over the southwestern US, they did much of their training near the city of San Antonio, and the Menger was always a favored place to relax after the day's exercises were over. Today, the Menger honors the memory of Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders with a collection of artifacts and memorabilia from the life and times of these great men. Specifically concentrated in the tavern, this exhibit is a fascinatingly candid look at the men known as&nbsp; Teddy's Terrors.

Known as the "Best Hotel West of the Mississippi," the Menger has been host to some of the greatest men of the 19th and early 20th century. Historical figures such as Robert E. Lee, Theodore Roosevelt, and Dwight D. Eisenhower, have all walked through its doors, and behind those doors, history has been made. 

The Menger Hotel

The Alamo was originally called Mission San Antonio de Valero and was founded in 1718. The church was built between 1744-1757. The mission was one of five established by Spain along the San Antonio River in the 1700s. Its original purpose was to serve as a way station for missions in East Texas (these would eventually fail and two moved to San Antonio). The missions were part of Spain's effort to extend its empire in the Southwest and prevent France from doing the same from Louisiana.Conflict arose as a result of Mexico encouraging Americans to move to Texas, offering acres of land on the condition that they convert to Catholicism. However, once in Texas, settlers did not follow through with this which of course angered the Mexican government. Other sources of conflict included slavery, Federalism, and immigrant rights. Texans began taking steps to declare independence in 1835 and were able to&nbsp;drive Mexican forces out on December 11, 1835.&nbsp;To put an end to the Texas&nbsp;Revolution, Mexican General Santa Anna built an army of 6,000 men. Upon reaching the Alamo on the 23 of February, he asked its inhabitants to surrender.&nbsp; After a Texan cannon was fired in response, Santa Ana gave orders to begin the siege, which lasted two weeks. Reinforcements to the Alamo never showed up despite the many calls for help from leaders, such as William B. Travis.&nbsp;

The Battle of the Alamo, which took place between February 23 and March 6, 1836, accelerated the conflict between Mexico and settlers in the Tejas province that became known as the Texas Revolution. Texas declared independence from Mexico in 1836 after years of confrontations between its inhabitants (including the large number of Americans who moved to Texas and outnumbered the Mexicans there) and the Mexican government.

Politician-frontiersman Davy Crockett and Colonel William Travis led the fight for the rebels along with Jim Bowie. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and General Martin Perfecto de Cos laid siege to the Alamo. The battle ended in total defeat for the Texans. All 180-250 Texans were either killed during the fighting or were executed. It is not known how many Mexicans died but the number is estimated at 600. Santa Ana assumed that the defeat would compel Texans to abandon the uprising. However, the opposite occurred as the loss galvanized support among Americans, many of whom went to Texas to join the Texan army, which eventually defeated Mexico at the Battle of San Jacinto. This secured, to some degree, legitimacy, and security for the Texas Republic, which was annexed by the United States in 1845. However, the tension between Mexico and the United States would not be resolved until the end of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848).

The Alamo is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. It is also part a UNESCO World Heritage Site that includes the four other nearby missions. 

The Alamo

Titled “The Spirit of Sacrifice,” the Alamo Cenotaph <a target="_blank" rel="nofollow">is known as an empty tomb because it resides in the spot
where the massacred defenders of the Alamo were placed and burned in mass pyres
by Santa Anna’s army</a>.1&nbsp;There was a later discovery
on the site, where remains from men who were believed to be Alamo soldiers were
found. After this discovery, the San Antonio History Preservation Society, or
SAHPS, placed the remains in a casket located inside the San Fernando Cathedral
in San Antonio, Texas. With the help of SAHPS, some believed that they had
given the heroes the proper burial they deserved. However, most Texans felt as
if this wasn’t enough.

There had always been plans to develop an Alamo
monument for the fallen, however plans always seemed to fall through. This was
until 1937 when the city of San Antonio raised 100,000 dollars to fund a
project to offer a memorial to the heroes of the Alamo.2&nbsp;After three years of construction, 1940
marked the completion of the Cenotaph and the monument was presented to the
public on the hundredth anniversary of Texas. <a target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Italian
Sculptor Pompeo Coppini with the assistance of a local San Antonio architect
Carlton Adams </a>built the Cenotaph to acknowledge the soldier’s dedication
and commemorate the sacrifice of war. The memorial is made from Georgia white
marble and sits upon a slab of Texan pink granite. Many believe the artists
used the white marble because when sculpted it “resembles ancient Greco- roman sculptures.
The artists wanted to make the defenders of the Alamo resemble the great Greek
and Roman warriors.”3&nbsp;Additionally, Texans
admired this Greco-Roman look because they felt as if the Alamo heroes deserved
the same recognition and status as the famous Greek and roman gods and warriors
they resembled. Dimensionally, the Cenotaph’s shaft stands proudly at sixty
feet tall, forty feet long, and twelve feet wide. Circling the entire Cenotaph, are engraved names of
every man who fought and gave his life at the battle of the Alamo. To this day,
the descendants of the fighters’, travel great distances to see their engraved
ancestors name.

The theme of the monument is “the spirit of sacrifice”
4&nbsp;and is displayed on the
southern main face of the monument. The following is inscribed on the southern
main face: “from the fire that burned their bodies, rose the eternal spirit of
sublime heroic sacrifice, which gave birth to an empire state.”5&nbsp;&nbsp;Above the etched marble
plaque, a figure is raising promptly and proudly out of flames and is raising
is hands up in praise. There are two men below him who appear to be emerging
from the fire. This figure is not a recognizable person but is assumed to
represent Jesus on the cross. This man emerging from the flames is stretching
his arms in a cross-like fashion to resemble Jesus dying for his follower’s
sins<a target="_blank" rel="nofollow">. When he died, Jesus was next to two sinners on
smaller crosses, this is mirrored on the Cenotaph as there are two smaller men
emerging from the flames towards the bottom of the southern face. The artist
mirrored Jesus’s sacrifice to the figures emerging from the flames to symbolize
that like Jesus the Alamo soldiers died for the better wellbeing of their
people. The northern main face presents a feminine figure thought to symbolize
the state of Texas. She holds the shield of Texas and the United States.</a>



On the east side ledge of the monument, there are
decorations of eight men that are sculpted in low relief and appear to be
fighting a battle. Above the fighters are two men depicted in high relief which
symbolizes that these men are of a more renowned position. These celebrated men
are William B. Travis and David Crockett. William B. Travis was a famous Texan war commander. In his early days he was a lawyer and soldier and at twenty-six years
old , he was granted the position
of&nbsp;lieutenant colonel&nbsp;for the Texas Army of independence. Travis
was most well-known for his letter asking for help as the Alamo volunteers were
surrounded by enemy forces. He addressed his letter to “the people of Texas and
all Americans in the world” where he devised the famous phrase “victory or death”.6&nbsp;Despite
being outnumbered by the Mexican army, Travis never ceased to encourage, and
hearten his men. He gave them hope for a better future as a lone star republic.
Next to Travis sculpture stands the well-known David Crockett. Crockett was a well-known
frontiersman and politician. Most importantly, he was a skilled soldier and
oversaw the Tennessee volunteers who he trained and commanded in the Battle of
the Alamo. Unfortunately however, like many others, Travis and Crockett died at
the Battle of the Alamo&nbsp;and will be remembered as two of the greatest officers
in Texas history. 

The west side
resembles the east with eight men in low relief and two brute men stand before
them: James B. Bonham and <a target="_blank" rel="nofollow">William B. Bowie</a>. Bonham
was an American born citizen who played the part of a “messenger, soldier and
officer at the battle of the Alamo.”7&nbsp;&nbsp;He was great acquaintances with Sam Houston and he devoted his life to giving
Texas the independence it deserves. William B. Bowie received word of Mexican troops planning to take the Alamo. Following
this news, he offered to take his men to Texas as volunteers to defend the
mission from the Mexican attack. Throughout the battle Bowie gained respect from
soldiers because of his marriage to a wealthy Mexican woman who chose to stay
loyal to Texas during the fight for independence. In addition, he was fluent in
Spanish and had close ties with few Mexicans soldiers who often provided
information about the plans of Santa Anna’s army. Both Bonham and Bowie died in
battle and will be remembered as great Alamo war heroes and their faces will
remain in stone on the cenotaph forever.

Since the 1980s there
has been quite some speculation surrounding the Cenotaph. Just this past year
the city was attempting to remove and relocate the cenotaph. The possibility of
displacing the Cenotaph left Texans outraged. San Antonio citizens argue that
the monument “sits in the correct spot. This is an empty tomb and it is
commemorating the defenders. Because of this I don’t want it moved an inch”8&nbsp;&nbsp;It has become apparent that the Alamo Cenotaph represents much more than just a
monument to Texans. It represents selfless service and encourages Texans to
defend what is important. Because of its significance and the display of Texas
strength, the Alamo Cenotaph will always be a valued monument to Texans.<div><div>

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In the heart of downtown San Antonio stands the Alamo Cenotaph. The Battle of the Alamo is the most well-known battle in the Texas Revolution. In fact, most would agree that the Battle of the Alamo is the pivotal point in the revolution and was essential to the victory of gaining independence from Mexico. Soaring sixty feet high and located alongside the surviving mission, San Antonio’s “Alamo Cenotaph” praises the men who gave their lives to defend the mission, rather than succumb and surrender to the overwhelming odds.

Alamo cenotaph

During the early 1960s, demonstrations were taking place across the country to demand the end to racial discrimination at lunch counters and other establishments. Inspired by a wave of successful sit-ins that began with the February 1 1960 protest at Woolworth's in North Carolina, students and others in Texas joined the movement. After choosing locations, Texas protesters followed the same strategies of non-violence and refused to get up from their seats even after being denied service, experiencing violence, or being threatened with the prospect of being arrests. While many cities in the South saw violence in response to civil rights protests, the situation in San Antonio was more nuanced. Economic growth and providing at least a semblance of fairness and tranquility seemed to be the top priority for city officials and business leaders in San Antonio, so the police rarely responded with violence as occurred in some Southern cities. In previous years and prompted by a lawsuit from the NAACP, the City Council in 1954 ordered an end to segregation in municipal parks and golf courses. However, San Antonio municipal swimming pools remained segregated, and while San Antonio schools officially accepted the Brown v. Board of Education, the city followed a gradual approach to integration. Reverend Claude Black said that the city followed a duplicitous approach with the goal to "to give it to you and not give it to you." This "pattern," he explained "made it most difficult to develop the kind of unity that you need in the Black community in order to develop the opposition. Any time you give people in desperate conditions a glimmer of hope, you defuse them." Reverend Claude Black further explained, "San Antonio did not have that raw racist expression, but you did not have either the dignity of being a person, a citizen of the community . . . . It was not difficult for a Black person to develop inwardly a tremendous amount of hostility toward the community." This environment of accepting only gradual change and seeing civil rights as an area of compromise instead of a moral right helps to explain the events that would unfold at San Antonio's Woolworth's lunch counter in March 1960. As sit-ins spread through the South,local business leaders in San Antonia decided that the city's restaurants would not serve protesters who started sit-ins and instead indicated that they would support more gradual measures such as meetings. Mary Andrews, a college freshman at Our Lady of the Lake College and the NAACP's youth group president, took it upon herself to send letters to six stores in downtown San Antonio asking them to desegregate lunch counters. Black ministers started to visit local businesses to negotiate for the integration of downtown lunch counters. The Mayor of San Antonio, J. Edwin Kuykendall wanted to prevent the kinds of protests and negative press in other cities. He suggested desegregation was a moral issue and as a result, church leaders should take up the issue instead of the city. The mayor asked clergy to meet and talk with business leaders about gradual desegregation. Lead by Reverend C. Don Baugh local church leaders convened several meetings with business owners to find a solution. Unfortunately, these initial meetings did not include Black leaders or organizations. On March 13, 1960, a desegregation rally was attended by 1,500 participants where the Reverend Claude Black announced that on March 17, demonstrators would target businesses if they continued to refuse service to African Americans. Facing mounting pressure from the NAACP and local leaders, the city again held a meeting on March 15, 1960, but did not include many Black leaders. One day later, on March 16, 1960, four African Americans were served at the Woolworth's lunch counter. On the 19th, Blacks and white citizens celebrated the desegregated lunch counter with a banquet. The situation in San Antonio demonstrated a measure of change that Black leaders would later see as more superficial than substantive. Looking back on the situation, Baugh said that excluding them "was paternalism. The white man was once again needing to see what he was willing to give the Black person. At the time, I didn't see it."

Built around 1921 the Woolworth Building is best-know today as the site where the first previously-segregated lunch counter in San Antonio served African American patrons. The February 1, 1960 lunch counter protest in Greensboro spurred other local protests and spread to Texas. City leaders hoped to avoid negative press and worked with owners of establishments to pre-empt demonstrations. Leading newspapers supported integration, and when the city attorney and police chief both stated that they would not arrest civil rights protesters, restaurant owners decided to comply with the city's preference that the era of "white-only" lunch counters come to a quiet end. On March 16th, four African Americans were served for the first time at a previously segregated lunch counter at this Woolworths. Several days later, city leaders celebrated this solution as "the San Antonio Way."

Woolworth Building and the 1960 San Antonio Civil Rights Movement

As part of the 1981 River Walk Extension project, historical marker erected at this site notes that the San Antonio Mural was donated by Robert V. West, Jr., of the Tesoro Corporation. The mural was given “in recognition that we all are members of one community, and that we all have a common goal ... The goal of improving the economic and social conditions of our city and of making it a more desirable place in which to live.” In January 2021, the City of San Antonio also added an interpretive sign next to the mural, perhaps in response to the insurrection at the U.S. Capitol in Washington D.C. on January 6, 2021. The sign acknowledges the "rich, but complex history" of San Antonio since the time of its establishment, including competing claims of sovereignty from different nations, from Spain to the U.S. This history entailed "symbols, buildings, and flags associated with various time periods, cultures, and nations," including "one of the most complicated time periods in the San Antonio's history...associated with the confederate flag," which is depicted on the mural along with other flags. As noted on the interpretive sign, Texas seceded from the U.S. on March 2, 1861, following the decision of a majority of voters to join the confederacy. Despite this, San Antonio remained a stronghold for abolitionism, with "an overwhelming number of citizens who voted to oppose secession and slavery."The San Antonio Mural was designed by Thomas M. Stell, Jr. (1898 - 1981), a draughtsman, portraitist, and mosaic artist who was part of a regional group known as the "Dallas Nine." Stell's lengthy career took him to Hollywood, Dallas, Chicago, Nebraska, and New York, where he initially studied art at Columbia University. He exhibited his work at the 1933 Texas State Fair and the 1939 Golden Gate Exposition in San Francisco, and he taught at the Dallas Art Institute before being appointed as the Texas Director for the American Index of Design, a federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) program. In the early 1940s, Stell became an instructor at San Antonio's Trinity University, and in 1945 he took a position in the art department of the University of Texas at Austin. After attending the same university as a graduate student, Stell began to travel and to experiment with creating murals using ceramics and glass. By 1966, he settled permanently in San Antonio, where he completed a series of glass mosaics depicting the indigenous peoples of North and South America for the City's Tower of the Americas in 1968. His corporate commissions also included a series of fourteen abstract mosaics depicting detailed machinery for the Dallas headquarters of Texas Instruments. His work appears in several private collections and in the art galleries at Southern Methodist University.Shortly before his death in 1981, Stell was in the midst of a commission on behalf of the Tesoro Corporation, for which he designed a sixteen-by-nine-foot mural that would become part of the San Antonio River Walk Extension project. His design reflected his strong interest in Italian Renaissance art, as he admired the early Flemish artists for their attention to detail and use of "solid surfaces such as masonite or wood." As evidenced by the San Antonio Mural, Stell translated the artistic techniques that he studied early in his career into his later explorations of glass and ceramic mosaic art. Although he was unable to complete the commission prior to his death, Charles Francis Winans (1939 - 2007) was hired to finish the mural. Winans was raised in the Texas oil fields before working in cryptography and signal communication in the U.S. Air Force. In 1967, he settled in San Antonio, where he opened Grandma's Tea Shop and Jomo Gallery. His work was considered avant-garde, especially for south Texas in the 1960s, so he moved with his family to California, where he became part of the Beat Movement. Eventually, Winans returned to San Antonio and in 1981, he completed the mural designed by Thomas Stell for the City's River Walk Extension project.

Designed by Thomas M. Stell, Jr., the San Antonio Mural was completed by Charles Francis Winans in 1981 as part of the City's River Walk Extension project. Both artists had strong ties to the city and to Texas, with Winans operating a gallery in San Antonio, and Stell completing several corporate commissions within the state. The mural is located in a short, well-lit tunnel that runs from the Hyatt Regency Hotel to the outdoor River Walk. Within the passageway, the mural appears on the left side when approaching from the hotel. A narrow channel of water runs along the right side of the tunnel, which is edged with tiered rows of native plants. A historical marker placed on the wall in 1981 states that the mural was dedicated to the people of San Antonio by Robert V. West of the Tesoro Corporation. In January 2021, the City added an interpretive sign below the mural, acknowledging the "rich, but complex" history of San Antonio, and in particular, the secession of Texas from the United States in March 1861, which lasted until the end of the Civil War in 1865.

San Antonio Mural and Historical Marker

Membership to the club was limited to German men who gathered to socialize, play games, read, and discuss literary related topics. Apparently, a number of distinguished guests visited the club (the Casino Club)&nbsp;in its early years including generals Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee. The club remained very active until the Great Depression, which took a toll on the club's finances. The club was forced to sell the building in 1940. In 1942, oilman Thomas Gilcrease bought it to use it as the headquarters for his company. Gilcrease also housed his collection of Western art in the building. He sold the building in 1952 to an insurance company. During the next 20 years or so, it was mostly vacant. At some point, presumably in the 1980s, the building was converted into apartments. As for the club itself, it appears that it remained active until the 1960s.

The San Antonio Casino Club Building is a historic, triangle-shaped structure situated along the San Antonio Riverwalk at the intersection of Crockett and Press Streets. Erected in 1927, it is unique not only for its shape but for the fact that its design combines Art Deco architecture with Mayan detailing. It also features a stepped central above the main entrance. The club was founded in 1925 when two clubs (the Casino Club, established 1854; and the San Antonio Club, established 1881) merged. The San Antonio Casino Club Building once featured club rooms, dormitories, dining rooms, and a ballroom. Today, it is now an apartment building with a restaurant on the ground floor. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. The art collection is now located at the Gilcrease Museum in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

San Antonio Casino Club Building

<h3>Staacke Building</h3>Augustus Staacke was born in Hanover, Germany in 1825. When he immigrated to the United States is unclear but it appears he and his family arrived in San Antonio by the late 1860s. In 1869, he bought the property and whether the adobe church was still standing at the time is unknown. He built a stone structure to house his business, which eventually expanded to include carriages and wagons. He sold it to his three sons in 1889, who renamed it Staacke Bros. The present building was constructed in 1894; the previous structure was not completely torn down, however, as parts were incorporated into the new building. The company owned other buildings as well, including a warehouse across the street. In 1905, it introduced the first automobile to San Antonio. Eventually, the company transitioned to selling only automobiles and sold the building in 1924 to move to a new location. In the coming decades, a paint company and furniture company occupied the building. It was restored in the 1980s.<h3>Stevens Building</h3>John J. Stevens was born in San Antonio to Irish parents in 1852. His career began when he became the private secretary of Governor Edmund Jackson Davis in 1870. He later became the chief clerk of the Southern Pacific Railroad in Galveston, Texas. He managed a hotel known for its mineral baths between 1900 and 1904. Over the years, Stevens invested in a number of ventures and served on a number of boards such as the Turner Gravel Company, the Southern National Gas Company, and the City National Bank. He was also involved in real estate. A business called the Wagner and Chabot Company occupied the Stevens Building for 45 years. A furniture company (not the same that occupied the Staacke Building) was housed here between 1946 to 1979. The University of San Antonio occupied the third floor for nearly 60 years. In 1979, Nix Hospital bought the building with the intent to demolish it to make room for a parking lot. Fortunately, it was saved thanks to the efforts of the San Antonio Conservation Society and restored.

Designed by prominent Texas architect James Riely Gordon (1864-1937), the Staacke Brothers and Stevens Buildings are historically significant as fine examples of late 19th century commercial architecture and represent the economic growth and prosperity the city was experiencing at the time. German immigrant Augustus Staacke (1825-1909) built the Staacke Building in 1894 to house his general merchandising business whose products included carriages, buggies, and Studebaker wagons. Gordon designed the building in the Renaissance Revival style. It stands on the site of First Presbyterian Church in San Antonio, an adobe structure built in 1846. Local businessman John J. Stevens (1852-1928) erected the Stevens Building in 1891. It housed his office and Stevens rented out the remaining space to businesses. Gordon designed it the Richardsonian Romanesque style. Both buildings are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and house offices and businesses today.

Staacke Brothers and Stevens Buildings

George W. Brackenridge was born in Warwick County, Indiana on January 14, 1832. As a young man, he attended Hanover College, Indiana University, and Harvard University. He and his parents moved to Texas in 1853, settling in Texana. He later worked as a surveyor from 1857 to 1860. As a supporter of the Union during the Civil War, he was ostracized and could not stay in Texas. He was appointed as a U.S. Treasury agent in 1863 and worked in New Orleans for the Treasury Department after the Union captured the city. In 1866, he moved to San Antonio and, as noted above, established the bank. He also founded a cotton company with partner to sell former Confederate cotton his father seized. The need for businessmen (cattle barons, railroad investors, etc.) to receive support and legal advice for their ventures prompted Brackenridge to establish the San Antonio Loan and Trust Company in 1892 (the federal government did not allow national banks from offering trust services at the time). Brackenridge became involved in a variety of activities and roles including serving as the president of the San Antonio Water Works Company from 1883 to 1906 and as the president of the San Antonio Express Publishing Company. He also served on the local school board. He is perhaps most well known for his tenure as regent of the University of Texas. Among his many activities as regent, he provided educational funds for women and minorities (he encouraged hiring women faculty members as well). His educational philanthropy extended outside of San Antonio too. A few examples include providing the funds to build a dorm for the first women medical students in Galveston, and acquiring 500 acres for the University of Austin. Brackenridge never married and died on December 28, 1920. He was buried in his family's cemetery in Jackson County, Texas. Most of his fortune went to the George W. Brackenridge Foundation. As for the two buildings, the bank was eventually acquired by First National Bank, which appears to have occupied it until the early 1970s. The San Antonio Loan and Trust building became an office building as well but exactly when is unclear. Both buildings are listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places.

Prominent late 19th and early 20th century businessman and philanthropist, George W. Brackenridge (1832-1920), built the First National Bank of San Antonio and San Antonio Loan and Trust Building in 1886 and 1903, respectively. He established the bank in 1866 as the state's first nationally chartered bank (it was originally called the San Antonio Bank). He founded the loan and trust company in 1892 and lived in the building with his sister, Eleanor. New York architect Cyrus L.W. Eidlitz designed the bank building in the Victorian style and it features Moorish arches and a small corner tower with a minaret. The loan and trust building was also designed in the Victorian style. Both buildings are used for offices today. Brackenridge's philanthropic activities included donating funds to schools and and he also served as regent for the University of Texas from 1886 to 1911 and from 1917 to 1919.

First National Bank of San Antonio and San Antonio Loan and Trust Building

Boasting unique Meso-American architecture, the Aztec Theatre was constructed in 1926. It soon became known as one of the most grandiose and spectacular entertainment plazas around hosting a number of movie premieres as well as stage productions. Live shows included chorus girls, a 26-piece orchestra, and an 11-rank Robert Morton organ.&nbsp;While the theater thrived for decades, by the 1970s the entertainment center experienced a decrease in popularity and revenue. Eventually, the building was divided into three auditoriums, but it wasn't enough to remedy the theatre's troubles, and it finally&nbsp;closed in 1984. In 1889, when there was talk of demolition, the San Antonio Conservation Society purchased the property. Fortunately, the&nbsp;theater was deservingly listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.&nbsp;After a grand restoration, designating the building as a multiplex with auditoriums, offices, special events spaces, and retail space,&nbsp;the Aztec has been reopened and is now one of the most-loved attractions on the San Antonio River Walk.

Built in 1926 and located along the famous River Walk, the historic Aztec Theater one of the most popular retail and entertainment centers in San Antonio. Originally, the multi-floored building hosted motion pictures as well as live shows. Thanks to a project completed in early 2016, the complex has been restored to its former glory featuring its original Meso-American architecture and decor. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. 

Aztec Theater

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					Before the Charline Empire Theatre was built, the Turner Opera House stood on the site since 1879. In 1890, Thomas Brady purchased the opera house and operated it for almost a decade. In 1913, Brady hired architects Mauran, Russell &amp; Crow of St. Louis to construct the Empire Theatre in its place. At the time Brady's theater was built, it was the most modern structure and largest theater in the city. A copper flying eagle welcomed theater guests at the entrance, and inside the walls featured ornate plaster moldings, ornamental medallions, free
form leaves, maidens, masks, and floral detail intricately painted with metallic powders or
gilded with 23 carat gold leafing.
					Devastatingly, the flood of 1921 damaged the grandiose theater. Without funds for repair, the theatre's interior damage was covered up&nbsp;with thick white paint. For&nbsp;decades, the Empire&nbsp;experienced further&nbsp;deterioration as it operated as a motion picture show house&nbsp;until it finally closed in 1978. However, in 1988, the City of San Antonio purchased the property and funds were raised through the Las Casas Foundation for an extensive restoration project. Thanks to generous support, especially from local&nbsp;philanthropist Charline McCombs who the theatre is now named after, the restoration was a success.The theatre reopened in 1998 and was added to the Register of Historic Places the following year.&nbsp;
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Designed in the European palazzo style by architects Mauran, Russell & Crow of St. Louis and built in 1913 by Thomas Brady, this 60 foot high, 4-story theatre originally featured an electric lighting system and stage equipment specifically for showing movies and hosting vaudeville acts. Unfortunately, the building was badly damaged due to a flood in 1921 and struggled to operate even as a b-run movie showhouse for a number of decades before it was closed down in 1978. However, thanks to a $5 million renovation project in 1998, the theater has been given a second life. It has been restored to its original grandeur and is now operated by Arts Center Enterprises. Additionally, the theater is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Charline McCombs Empire Theatre

Built in 1929&nbsp;by
John Eberson for Karl Hoblitzelle's Interstate Theatres, for many years, the Majestic Theatre was the largest theater in Texas and the second largest motion picture theater in America. It was also the first movie theater in Texas to be completely air-conditioned, a luxury not lost on its patrons. However, the Majestic's luxury went beyond simply comfort and soared into extravagant beauty. Through unique architectural design and the vibrant colors of the wall's murals, patrons of the theater might get as lost in the interior decoration as in the actual show.&nbsp;"Walls become towers with windows of colorful glass. A rare white peacock
perches on a balcony railing as doves are caught in mid-flight. Grape vines creep along the walls
and luscious foliage flourishes. The vaulted "sky" comes to life as stars twinkle while drifting
clouds pass by overhead. Balconies, tile roofs, arches, and columnns, railings, elaborate
ornamentation, statues, and a bell tower all aid in the transformation of the theatre into a
mystical village."1 However, as the movie industry changed, there became less of a demand for luxury among its customers, and December 31, 1974, the Majestic Theatre permanently closed its doors (at least, as a movie theater). The next year, it was listed on that National Register of Historic Places, and in 1976 Hoblitzelle Interests donated the building to the newly formed Majestic Foundation. After an extensive restoration effort, the Majestic Theatre reopened its doors as the home of the San Antonio Symphony in 1989, as well as holding several Broadway shows and other performing arts events. The Majestic Theatre was handed the additional honor of "National Historic Landmark" in 1993. Including its original history with its modern restored existence, the Majestic Theatre has seen many historic shows. Names like Ann Miller, Bob Hope, and Jerry Seinfield all share in common that they too have performed at the Majestic Theatre. Broadway Musicals, such as Wicked, The Lion King, and Les Miserables have all held shows on Majestic Theatre's stage. Today it is one of the finest places to watch a live performance.

Built in an era when designing lavish motion picture theaters was the rule, the ornate Majestic Theatre more than outdid the rule. Today the beautifully restored Majestic Theatre has transitioned to a different sort of show: the live theater and arts. Located in the heart of downtown San Antonio, Texas, the Majestic Theatre was built in 1929 and was designed in a Spanish Mediterranean style by John Eberson for Karl Hoblitzelle's Interstate Theatres. The 2,264 seat Majestic Theatre is a National Historic Landmark, and is currently home to the San Antonio Symphony and the Broadway in San Antonio series, along with a wide variety of concerts and performing arts attractions.

Majestic Theatre

The Gunter is located on Houston Street, which had been known as "Paseo" (Spanish for passageway or driveway) from the 1700s until 1851 when it was renamed after U.S. Senator (and future governor) Sam Houston. At that time, the street was was largely undeveloped. Brothers John and William Vance built the first structure, a two-story building on the hotel property in 1855 and leased it to the U.S. Army. Future Confederate Army generals Robert E. Lee and Albert Sidney Johnston were stationed here some time before the Civil War. During the war, Confederate forces occupied the building. Few other buildings were constructed on the street for many years but in 1872, the Vance brothers leased the building to a hotel operator named William G. Tobin, who named it the Vance House. It operated until 1879.The arrival of the railroad to San Antonio in 1877 helped transform city. The influx of visitors, businessmen and new residents spurred development of Houston Street in the late 1870s and 1880s. This included new, more sophisticated hotels that began to be built east of the San Antonio River. In 1886, a pair of new hotel operators, L.A. Trexler and Ludwig Mahncke, acquired the Vance House and renovated it. They renamed it Mahncke Hotel and advertised it to businessmen. It closed in 1907.That year, real estate developer Lawrence J. Hart, who had appears to have come to San Antonio in the early 1890s, formed the San Antonio Hotel Company to build what would be named the Gunter Hotel. During the first decade or so, he mostly focused on residential development but transitioned to commercial properties in the early 1900s. One of the investors of the company was wealthy lawyer, rancher and cattleman Jot Gunter. He died died just three weeks before the company hired the architecture firm to design the hotel. The company decided to name the hotel in his honor.When it opened on November 20, 1909, the hotel was eight-stories tall and had 350 guest rooms. It is believed to be one of the two oldest, multi-story steel frame buildings in the downtown area. The floods of 1913 and 1921 damaged the hotel but it survived both disasters. In 1924, the company sold it to the Baker Hotel Company, which built three stories in 1926, adding 200 guest rooms. The lobby was also redesigned and enlarged.The Gunter was a popular meeting and gathering place for several decades. As noted above, it was the site of many political and commercial conventions. Many organizations owned offices here as well including the Lions Club of San Antonio and the Texas Automobile Dealers Association. The United Services Automobile Association (originally called United States Army Automobile Association) was established here in 1922; the USAA grew to be one of the largest insurance companies in the country. Cattlemen found the hotel particularly enjoyable and many considered it a "home away from home." Prominent politicians and celebrities stayed at the Gunter too, including President Harry Truman, Roy Rogers, John Wayne, Nancy Reagan, and Lady Bird Johnson. The hotel was also known for its Japanese rooftop garden, which was the site of many dinner dances during the summer.Robert Johnson was born in 1911 close to Hazelhurst, Mississippi. By his teenage years he was playing a second-hand guitar and in his early twenties began to perform around southern Mississippi. He traveled around the country in the 1930s and became known for playing a wide range of popular music. He wrote his own songs as well. In 1936, an agent for the American Record Company, a subsidiary of Brunswick Records, recommended Johnson who was invited to record in November that year (Brunswick opened the studio in Gunter Hotel in 1932). Between November 23-27, Johnson recorded several songs, eleven of which were released on 78 rpm records. One of them is the popular song "Sweet Home Chicago." Johnson was likely only paid $200 and never received royalties. He continued to travel and perform but was allegedly poisoned to death on August 17, 1938 by a jealous husband in Greenwood, Mississippi. The location of his burial site is disputed; it is either in Quito or Morgan City, Mississippi.

The Sheraton Gunter Hotel was built in 1909 and has remained an important landmark in downtown San Antonio. It is known for its fine architecture, its contributions to the local economy, and its connection to music history. In terms of architecture, the hotel is a good example of early 20th century construction. It was built using modern building techniques and materials (steel and reinforced concrete), and offered amenities including elevators, heating, electricity, and later, air conditioning. The Gunter was also a popular place to stay for businessmen, particularly cattle ranchers. Numerous conventions, including state political conventions, were held here as well. However, the Gunter is perhaps best known for its place in music history. Over a few days in November 1936, Blues legend Robert Johnson (1911-1938) recorded many songs in a two-room studio operated by Brunswick Records. This recording session was one of only two he performed in (the other was in Dallas the next year). His music was largely unknown until the 1960s and became highly influential, inspiring numerous rising musicians of the time including Eric Clapton and the Rolling Stones.

Sheraton Gunter Hotel

José Antonio de la Garza was born on May 31, 1776. As an adult, he became a prominent landowner and was elected mayor of San Antonio in 1813 and then again in 1832. The coins he minted&nbsp;had his initials, "JAG", and the year 1818. The other side had a star symbol, which some consider to be where the idea of the "Lone Star" originated. The coins were minted for approximately a year and a half. In 1824, Garza was awarded two large properties in present-day Bexar County, making him one of the largest landowners in the county. He later bought the San Francisco de la Espada Mission around 1834. Garza moved to another home in the 1840s in the southeast part of the county. It appears he died on May 5, 1851 according to the newspaper&nbsp;The Texas State Gazette. Because of its thick walls, it took six months to demolish the house. Workers found a large stash of hidden money and a cannonball embedded in a wall, which presumably dates to the Siege of Bexar in 1832—an early battle of the Texas Revolution.

This spot is historically significant because it is likely where San Antonio's first mint (a facility that manufactures coins) was located. The mint was part of a large home complex owned by the prominent De La Garza family, who built the house in 1734. The home covered a whole city block and featured gardens and three-foot thick walls. A historical marker describing the home is attached to the corner of the Rand Building on Soledad and Houston streets. The mint was founded in 1818 by Jose Antonio De La Garza (1776–1851?), who received permission from the Spanish crown to mint coins, which were called "jolas". The home was demolished in 1912.

San Antonio River Walk Tour

Battle for Texas: The Experience

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information