Inez Milholland was born in 1886 to a wealthy family whose business allowed them to live between England and New York. As a young woman in England, Milholland met famed suffragist Emmaline Pankhurst, an encounter which contributed to her own developing views. Her parents believed in giving their children a well-rounded education; consequently, Milholland developed wide-ranging interests and a sharp intellect.Milholland graduated from Vassar, where she was active in a number of extracurricular activities and became increasingly politically active. During her time at Vassar, public discussion of suffrage was forbidden, so Milholland challenged the campus's rule by holding suffrage meetings in a cemetery adjacent to campus. The year that she graduated, she returned to the family home on East 9th Street, where she interrupted a parade for William Howard Taft by shouting from her window through a megaphone.After her graduation, she hoped to go to law school, but found that most law programs would not admit women. After applying to several universities, she was accepted to the New York University School of Law and graduated in 1912. As a law student, she continued her work as a suffragist and activist. She participated in the shirtwaist and laundry worker strikes in New York and also published articles on labor issues.In a life full of daring acts and unconventional behavior, Milholland is perhaps most well-known one act in 1913. The day before Woodrow Wilson's inauguration, she wore a white robe and rode a white horse to lead a suffrage parade. More than any other act, Milholland's Joan of Arc-inspired get-up cemented her legacy as an ardent suffragist

The Milholland family residence on East 9th Street 

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Inez Milholland, who spent part of her youth in her family's home on East 9th Street, was a labor lawyer and suffragist. Bold and outspoken even at a young age, Milholland once shouted out of her window with a megaphone in defense of women suffrage, interrupting a parade for William Howard Taft. She is most well-known, perhaps, for leading a suffrage parade in Washington, DC, the day before Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated. What is sometimes lost amid stories of her flamboyant persona, however, is that Milholland was a determined advocate for women and laborers. 

Former Residence of Suffragist Inez Milholland 

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Centuries before this area became a park, it was a marshy ground. Minetta Creek (which has long since been buried) ran through the park and was known to the Lenape tribe as a waterway with fresh water, an abundance of waterfowl, and a fine trout stream.   In 1624, the Dutch West India Company sponsored settlers to establish the trading post of New Amsterdam on the southern tip of Manhattan Island. In 1626, Peter Minuit bought Manhattan from the Lenape Indians and sent slaves to farm the land.   In 1643, negotiations between the Dutch and Lenape Indians turned violent.This resulted in the Lenape destroying many of the Dutch farms. In order to secure enough food for the settlement's growing population, the Dutch decided to grant freedom and farmland to some African slaves  in return for a portion of their crops. Some of the land grants overlapped the site we now know as Washington Square. However, the slave's right to own land were later revoked when the land was placed under English rule.    After the Revolutionary War, this area became a potter's field, a public burial place where poor and indigent people, mostly victims of yellow fever, were buried. Eventually, after 20 years of use, the potter's field was filled. On May 1,1825, the potter's field was closed, and no more burials were allowed. Meanwhile, the New York's Common Council were looking for an area on which the city’s volunteer militia companies could drill and march. They felt that the potter's field would be the perfect place to establish their military ground.   On July 4,1826, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Dependence, the previous potter's field was officially declared as a military parade ground. Within a few years, a prime residential area began developing around the parade ground, and New York University was established near that area in 1831. In 1838, Samuel F.B. Morose made the first public demonstration of the telegraph in Washington Square Park.    During the Civil War, many people saw the horrors and casualties of fighting, and refused to be drafted into the war. This caused the Draft Riots of 1863, one of the bloodiest urban conflicts in American history. To appease the rioters, troops were sent from Gettysburg to camp out at Washington Square to maintain the peace in the vicinity.    Finally,in 1870, the parade ground was transformed into a landscaped park, which we see today.

Washington Square Park used to be marshy ground inhabited by the Lenape tribe. After the arrival of settlers, the area was used primarily as farmland. After the Revolutionary War, the area was used as a potter's field, a place to bury those who died from yellow fever. After the potter's field was full, the area was declared a military parade ground. During the Draft Riots of 1863, troops were sent to this square in order to calm down the rioters. In 1870, the area was transformed into the park that we see today. 

A native of North Carolina, writer Thomas Wolfe left his home state to attend Harvard after graduating UNC Chapel Hill. At the time, he saw himself primarily as a playwright and went to Harvard to study his craft with George Pierce Baker. In 1923, he came to New York City, hoping to sell one of his plays to the Theatre Guild. Wolfe would struggle financially for several years while sharing an apartment with several roommates from Chapel Hill and trying to get the university to fund his writing efforts. In 1924, Wolfe took a teaching position at NYU's English Department. He would continue to teach at the university on and off for the next several years, and after his first year, he took some of his savings and made what would become the first of several trips to Europe, where he hoped to focus on his writing. When he returned to the city from Europe, he met Aline Bernstein. Bernstein was married and twenty years his senior, but the two began a serious and ultimately tumultuous affair. It was reportedly Bernstein who encouraged Wolfe to focus more on producing a novel rather than plays. In January of 1926, the pair moved into a fourth-floor walkup at 13 East 8th Street, an apartment that Bernstein provided for Wolfe. She continued to support him financially when he was not teaching and it was in the 8th Street apartment that he began writing his first novel, Look Homeward, Angel. The book made Wolfe a literary star, although his thinly-veiled portrayal of dozens of people in his hometown of Asheville, North Carolina, led to death threats and animosity to such a degree that he was unable to return to the city for several years. Eventually Wolfe and Bernstein moved to a larger apartment and though she had supported him financially for a number of years, after the publication of Look Homeward, Angel, Wolfe began to see other women and ended the relationship with Bernstein. Once the relationship ended, he moved to Brooklyn and rented an apartment, where he would begin work on his second novel, Of Time and the River. Wolfe died in 1938 at the age of 37.

Writer Thomas Wolfe moved into the fourth-floor apartment at 13 East 8th Street in 1926, after accepting a teaching position at NYU. It was here that he would write the bulk of his first novel, Look Homeward, Angel. He lived in the apartment with his lover and benefactor, Aline Bernstein, who paid for the apartment. The couple lived in the apartment for several years, even as their relationship became increasingly strained. They eventually moved to a larger apartment on West 11th Street and separated soon after the novel's publication.

Former Residence of Thomas Wolfe 

Inez Milholland was born in 1886 to a wealthy family whose business allowed them to live between England and New York. As a young woman in England, Milholland met famed suffragist Emmaline Pankhurst, an encounter which contributed to her own developing views. Her parents believed in giving their children a well-rounded education; consequently, Milholland developed wide-ranging interests and a sharp intellect. Milholland graduated from Vassar, where she was active in a number of extracurricular activities and became increasingly politically active. During her time at Vassar, public discussion of suffrage was forbidden, so Milholland challenged the campus's rule by holding suffrage meetings in a cemetery adjacent to campus. The year that she graduated, she returned to the family home on East 9th Street, where she interrupted a parade for William Howard Taft by shouting from her window through a megaphone. After her graduation, she hoped to go to law school, but found that most law programs would not admit women. After applying to several universities, she was accepted to the New York University School of Law and graduated in 1912. As a law student, she continued her work as a suffragist and activist. She participated in the shirtwaist and laundry worker strikes in New York and also published articles on labor issues. In a life full of daring acts and unconventional behavior, Milholland is perhaps most well-known one act in 1913. The day before Woodrow Wilson's inauguration, she wore a white robe and rode a white horse to lead a suffrage parade. More than any other act, Milholland's Joan of Arc-inspired get-up cemented her legacy as an ardent suffragist

Margaret Anderson, a native of Indianapolis, moved to Chicago in 1908 and joined the staff of The Dial. She also worked as a book critic for the Chicago Evening Post. She wasn’t entirely satisfied with her jobs, and in 1914, she founded her own journal, which she named The Little Review. Anderson envisioned the journal as something radical, with “the best conversations the world has to offer.” Strong-willed and charming, Anderson was determined that the journal succeed, and she was able to use her beauty and wit to solicit funding from wealthy patrons. She was equally successful in persuading some of the most acclaimed writers of the day to contribute to The Little Review. In addition to publishing works by political radicals like Emma Goldman, the journal also published Anderson’s defense of homosexuality. In 1916, Anderson met Chicago art teacher, Jane Heap, and the two soon fell in love and moved in together. Heap, often using pseudonyms, worked as co-editor of the Little Review. In 1917, the pair moved to Greenwich Village and began publishing the journal from their upper-floor apartment on 8th Street.Their move to New York was aided by Ezra Pound, who also served as foreign editor of the Little Review in London. It was Pound who sent Anderson and Heap parts of James Joyce’s Ulysses in 1918, which the pair began serializing in the journal. The pair had published roughly half of the novel in successive issues before they were charged with obscenity. Several issues containing parts of the novel were seized and destroyed by the US Post Office on the grounds that the prose was obscene. When the case went to trial in 1921, Anderson and Heap were found guilty, fined $100, and ordered to discontinue publishing the novel. Later that year, the pair removed the magazine’s motto, “Making No Compromise with the Public Taste,” from the journal’s cover page. The trial drew even more publicity for the journal, with residents of Greenwich Village appearing at the courthouse to protest the proceedings. The experience left Anderson depressed about the state of in the US and she handed over control of the magazine to Heap in 1923. Soon after, Anderson moved to Paris and began a romantic relationship with the French singer Georgette Leblanc. The Little Review’s last years were marked by a gradual decline, although it had succeeded in publishing some of the best known writers of the day, and many who were then unknown but would go on to become part of the American canon. Among the journal’s many contributors were Djuna Barnes, T.S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, and W.B. Yeats. The Little Review ceased publication in 1929 and is now regarded as one of the most influential modernist literary journals.

On the upper floor of a nondescript building in Greenwich Village, literary history was made. From 1914 to 1929, the top floor apartment was home to Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, who published the modernist literary journal, the Little Review. The journal published many of the most influential writers of the day, including Sherwood Anderson, Ernest Hemingway, and T.S. Eliot. But the Little Review is most remembered for its serialized publication of James Joyce's Ulysses, which was considered obscene at the time.

Former "Little Review" Office 

Any reader of Henry James or Edith Wharton knows that Greenwich Village--particularly the area on the north side of Washington Square Park--was once an affluent, blue-blood enclave. But that began to change in the late nineteenth century, when some of the elegant old homes were torn down to make way for hotels and apartments that catered to a more economically diverse clientele. In 1902, one of the neighborhood's grand homes was demolished to make way for the new, eight-story Hotel Earle at 103 Waverly. The hotel was named for the first owner, Earle S. L'Amoureux. In 1908, L'Amoureux added an identical connecting building that included reading rooms and a restaurant. By the time of the hotel's expansion, the area around Washington Square Park was well on its way to becoming a thoroughly bohemian province. Colorful and still affordable, the neighborhood attracted a large population of writers, artists, and musicians, a number of whom would temporarily make a home at the Hotel Earle. One of the earliest, soon-to-become-famous guests at the Earle was a young Ernest Hemingway, then a junior journalist. He stayed at the hotel for several weeks in 1914 before he set out for Europe and the life-altering experience of working as an ambulance driver on the front lines. By the 1950s, the Hotel Earle was past its prime. Its rates were lower and it attracted an ever more bohemian, eclectic clientele. One of the hotel's most well-known regulars was poet Dylan Thomas, who first stayed at the property in the early 1950s after being evicted from the Beekman Hotel. Thomas liked the hotel because of its laid-back atmosphere and proximity to some of his favorite watering holes, including the Minetta Tavern and the White Horse Tavern. It was after a night of heavy drinking at the latter that Thomas died in 1953. Low rates, its location in the heart of Greenwich Village, and a decidedly raffish kind of charm made the Hotel Earle a popular place to stay with musicians in the mid- to late twentieth century. Bo Diddly reportedly stayed at the hotel every time he was in the city and the Rolling Stones stayed there during their first US tour in 1964. Bob Dylan stayed at the Earle in 1961 after arriving in New York and would later live in Room 305 with Joan Baez, who immortalized the hotel in her song, "Diamonds and Rust." And though some dispute this claim, the Hotel Earle is also reportedly the place where John and Michelle Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas wrote "California Dreamin.'" In 1973, the hotel was purchased by Daniel Paul and his family. They gave the property a thorough restoration and in 1986, they renamed it the Washington Square Hotel, reflecting its proximity to one of the city's most beloved outdoor spaces.

Manhattan is full of hotels with storied and colorful histories, but few can match the long and legendary history of the Washington Square Hotel which has operated at this location since the first years of the 20th century. Known for much of its history as the Hotel Earle, the property has played host to some of the twentieth century's most illustrious names in music and literature including the Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, and Bo Didley. Located just steps from Washington Square Park in the heart of Greenwich Village, the hotel was a welcoming and affordable temporary home for the Village's bohemian denizens. 

Washington Square Hotel (formerly the Hotel Earle)

Anne Charlotte Lynch was born in 1815&nbsp;in Bennington, Vermont, to parents Patrick Lynch of Ireland and Charlotte Gray of Vermont. After the passing of her father in 1819 who died in a shipwreck, Anne and her mother, along with older brother Thomas, moved to Hartford, Connecticut. It was here that she attended the Albany Female Academy, from where she graduated in 1834. Upon graduating, Anne began teaching at Albany and Providence. It was during this time that she began her literary meetings, which were so popular it was said that "the very best literary society of Providence could be found in the parlor of Miss Lynch." In 1845, Anne and her mother moved to their new home on 116 Waverly Place, New York. Anne opened her doors to the&nbsp;New York literati community at her literary meetings almost as soon as she unpacked her bags. It was here that &nbsp;her soirees&nbsp;became most influential and coveted, with names like Edgar Allen Poe, Margaret Fuller, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, and Herman Melville often frequenting her parlor every Saturday night.&nbsp;The Literary News journal recalled in 1894, "She received every Saturday evening. American literature was just beginning to make itself felt, and her house became the weekly gathering place for aspiring poets, writers, and novelists." It was here that Edgar Allen Poe first presented "The Raven," reciting it before the crowd that had gathered that Saturday night. At this time, Poe was a regular at the Lynch house, but when flirty correspondence was brought to light between him and Fanny Osgood, another Saturday night regular, Anne kicked him out of the social circle. The correspondence was a huge scandal, as both parties were married. Anne's reaction reflects&nbsp;the deep devotion she held towards preserving the purpose of the literary circle, discussions that focused primarily on literature instead of scandal. Today, 116 Waverly Place is little more than an expensive, upscale New York apartment. There are no visible markers which designate the house as one that once hosted the most prestigious literary names in American history, but such a history&nbsp;is there to be found for those who seek it out.

The home of Anne Charlotte Lynch served as a gathering place for many up and coming authors residing in New York during the mid 1800s. Every Saturday evening, Lynch welcomed guests such as Edgar Allen Poe, Margaret Fuller, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, and more. At these meetings, it was said that authors would exchange ideas, reflect on their work, and at times, share certain excerpts with their fellow authors. In addition to being a sculptor and hostess, Lynch was also an author herself, though she is most famous for hosting these meetings. She is credited with founding the modern book club in New York. 

Anne Charlotte Lynch's House

Eva Kotchever, known variously as Eve Adams or Eve Addams, was a Polish Jew who immigrated to the United States in the 1920s along with her partner, the Swedish painter Ruth Norlander. She settled in Greenwich Village, which had an artsy, bohemian reputation and a population that was more welcoming to alternative lifestyles than perhaps any other part of the city. In 1925, Adams opened a bar at 129 MacDougal Street, which was then the heart of the Village's LGBT community. Next door to the Provincetown Playhouse, the tea room became a popular after-theater spot and quickly developed a devoted following. It was a welcome gathering place for Jews and intellectuals, who were not always welcomed in other establishments. Women found it a safe space as well, at a time when women generally didn't venture into bars or clubs without being accompanied by a man. The tea room was different: a sign placed prominently at the entrance read "Men are admitted but not welcome." Despite its somewhat scandalous sign, the tea room appears to have actually been quite tame; despite sometimes being referred to as a bar, it's not altogether certain that it served alcohol. Most of the activity at Eve's appears to have been poetry readings and after-hours discussions between lesbians. Adams, who came to be known as the "queen of the third sex," was a vital part of the fabric of the Village and was friends with many of the Village's literary and political luminaries, including Emma Goldman, Henry Miller and Anais Nin. Many of the Village's most well-known residents frequented the tea room, which undoubtedly garnered publicity for the establishment, not all of it positive. The growing popularity of the tea room apparently attracted the ire of Bobby Edwards, who wrote a society column for the Greenwich Village Quill, and whose office was directly across the street. Edwards did not approve of the growing presence of lesbians across MacDougal Street, and although he often covered events at the tea room, he had nothing positive to say about Adams or many of the events held there. By the summer of 1926, Edwards had published a number of critical pieces about the tea room, even after participating in a poetry reading there. In July of 1926, an female undercover police officer entered the tea room and engaged Adams in conversation. She would later claim that Adams took her dancing and made sexual advances to her both in a taxi and in a hotel room. She also confiscated a book which Adams self-published, titled Lesbian Love. As far as the police were concerned, the book was evidence of indecency and disorderly conduct. Adams was senteced to six months to the Women's Workhouse at Welfare Island, as Roosevelt Island was known at the time. In an improbable twist, Adams was imprisoned there at the same time as another, far more well-known, woman, who was also arrested on obscenity charges. Because of her role in the Broadway play, Sex, Mae West served 8 days at Welfare Island. Adams' uncle in Connecticut offered to pay her bail but the city refused it. Following the completion of her term, Adams was deported to France. After her deportation, many in the Village remembered both Adams and the tea room fondly. A few years after her deportation, a play based on Lesbian Love was performed--albeit surreptitiously--in a basement theater on Christopher Street. A number of Village residents were resentful of Edwards and his likely role in Adams' arrest. In France, Adams operated a cafe and bookstore and eventually became involved in the fight against Francisco Franco in Spain. Upon her return to France in 1943, she and her partner were arrested and Adams was sent to Auschwitz, where she later died. The building which once housed Eve Adams' Tea Room is now an Italian restaurant.

From just 1925 to 1926, a Polish immigrant, Chawe Zlocsewer, made history by operating what was perhaps the first lesbian bar in New York City. Known as Eve Adams' Tearoom (or Eve Adams' Hangout). The basement bar, popular as an after-theater club, made no secret of its clientele. Because it was openly a lesbian bar, Eve Adams' Tearoom was targeted by police and Adams (as Zlocsewer was known) was convicted on obscenity charges and eventually deported. 

Site of Eve Adams' Tearoom (1925-1926)

In 1927,&nbsp;a barber named Dominic Parisi opened Caffé Reggio at 119 McDougal Street in&nbsp;Greenwich Village. It didn't begin as the&nbsp;coffeehouse visitors and residents know it as today, though. At its conception, it was actually a spot where Parisi would offer free cups of coffee to his customers who were waiting their turn for a haircut. Soon, however, the delicious brewed drinks became so popular that Parisi decided to open it as an official café. Though today the café offers a wide variety of caffeinated beverages, such as the caffé mocha, macchiato, and Americano, it was once known primarily for one particular drink: the cappuccino. In fact, Parisi brought the first ever espresso machine of its kind to America, and in his New York City café, introduced the cappuccino to the American public. Though the menu has grown over the decades, the cappuccino is still the star at Caffé Reggio. The cappuccino isn't the only thing still thriving at the café from those days, though.&nbsp;The original espresso machine itself is still an attraction -- as well as a continually used piece of equipment -- at the restaurant today. It was initially created as a showpiece for the 1900&nbsp;Paris World’s Fair, and was then bought by Parisi for $1,000 -- a substantial amount for the time. It is complete with valves, gauges, and decorative bronze angels and horses, all of which the new owner&nbsp;Fabrizio Cavallacci (who inherited the shop from his father) had polished a few years ago so it still shines like new. In fact, at one point comedian Bill Cosby was interested in buying it from the café. However, no attempts at purchasing the machine have yet removed it from its longtime home.&nbsp; Beyond the espresso machine, numerous other antiques adorn the café, including a 600-year-old bench that was&nbsp;once owned by the famous Medici family of Florence, Italy, the ceiling fan that appeared in the classic film&nbsp;Casablanca, and huge paintings from&nbsp;the famous school of&nbsp;Michelangelo Caravaggio. These antiques haven't retired in the café, however. Similar to the still-functioning espresso machine, the centuries-old bench is still lounged upon by coffee-sipping customers, and the fan is still put to use on many a hot summer's day.&nbsp; As well as being the home of antiques and art, Caffé Reggio&nbsp;has also been a hot spot for shooting films (or notable scenes for films, at least). Scenes from&nbsp;The Godfather II,&nbsp;Serpico,&nbsp;and, more recently,&nbsp;Inside Llewyn Davis, among others,&nbsp;have been shot in the café. Film companies approach the restaurant with their inquiries to film there, rather than the other way around, and the charge the companies a fee when it causes them to shut down shop for several hours. However, no fee is charged to student groups with one camera man who can be done at the location in a half hour.&nbsp; Today, Caffé Reggio continues to be a refreshing face among a coffeehouse-chain world. It remains a popular spot in the hectic city, holding on to its 1920s-esque charm even as the world around it changes. Open 365 days of the year, the café is there even for those craving a cappuccino on Christmas morning or New Year's Eve. It has only ever been owned by two Italian families, and continues serving up traditional dishes and coffee beverages.&nbsp;

In 1927, a barber named Dominic Parisi opened Caffé Reggio at 119 McDougal Street in Greenwich Village. At its conception, it was actually a spot where Parisi would offer free cups of coffee to his customers who were waiting their turn for a haircut. Soon, however, the delicious brewed drinks became so popular that Parisi decided to open it as an official café. This café was the first in America to serve the cappuccino when Parisi brought his espresso machine over from Italy. 


Caffé Reggio

The Minetta Tavern was
established in 1937, replacing The Black Rabbit that had closed its doors just
8 years prior. The origin of the restaurant's title dates back centuries. The brook
that ran through the area was originally called the "Mannette" by
Native Americans. This name meant "Devil's Water." Though time and
acculturation slightly altered the name, now “Minetta,” the original meaning was
preserved and provides a cultural background for the tavern's name. At the
time, alcohol was commonly referred to as "The Devil's Water.”

 Frequented by many of the 1950’s "beats,” Minetta became
increasingly popular among the literary crowd. In addition to Joe Gould, Ernest
Hemingway, Ezra Pound, Eugene O'Neill, E.E. Cummings, and Dylan Thomas, the pub
also became a hotspot for a group who called themselves “The Ravens.” Taking
their name from Poe's poem, this group met and published poetry in what became
known as The Raven Anthology Journal,
which was published from 1933-1940. Gould was perhaps the most controversial
member, and purportedly roamed The Village with a sign that read "Joseph
Ferdinand Gould, Hot Shot Poet from Poetville, a Refugee from The Ravens. Poets
of the World, Unite. You Have Nothing To Lose But Your Brains." Gould
boasted that he wrote An Oral History of
Our Time, a work that was supposedly completed in the Minetta. It included
bits of over 20,000 conversations he overheard. It was a hoax, however. The
manuscript does not exist.

Today, the Minetta Tavern&nbsp;is run by&nbsp;Keith
McNally. A portion of his biography as&nbsp;found on the tavern's official
webpage reads,&nbsp;"... born in London&nbsp;and moved to New York City in
1975 where he distinguished himself by being fired from every job he ever
held." After taking over the Minetta, McNally&nbsp;closed the tavern for a
period of 6 months to refurbish the pub back to its historical look. Today, the
tavern retains&nbsp;the original wooden bar that was first installed in 1931,
and it still serves a Northern Italian cuisine characteristic of its first days. 
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

The Minetta Tavern was established in 1937 by Eddie Silieri, who became known as Eddie Minetta, taking his name from the tavern that in turn borrowed its title from the stream that ran through the area. Founded at the height of the prohibition era, The Minetta Tavern became a popular speakeasy for many literary legends, most notably Joe Gould, who frequented the pub so often that he was said to receive his mail there. With perhaps a similar taste for pubs, authors Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, Eugene O'Neill, E.E. Cummings, and Dylan Thomas visited the bar to unwind and socialize. Today, The Minetta Tavern retains much of its history, as much of the original design remains, serving to transport patrons back to a time when the world's greatest authors congregated here and wrote their masterpieces.

Minetta Tavern

As its name suggests, the Provincetown Playhouse began in Provincetown, Massachusetts, in 1915. It began among a group of artists and writers who were vacationing together in a rented beach cottage. The group performed two plays on the cottage’s veranda and when word of the performances began to spread, they put on more performances in a former fish house turned makeshift theater. The following summer, even more writers and artists arrived in Provincetown after hearing about the group’s performances. After the summer of 1916, the group decided to form a permanent organization, which would be based in Greenwich Village, where many of them lived. The organization’s purpose was primarily to provide an outlet for emerging playwrights, particularly those with an interest in realism rather than the melodrama which was then in vogue. The group moved to New York City in the fall of 1916 and converted the parlor of an apartment at 139 MacDougal Street into a theater. The location was a fortuitous one; it was in the heart of the Village, next door to both the Liberal Club and Polly Holladay’s restaurant, both of which were popular haunts of the neighborhood’s bohemian set. While still in Provincetown, a young Eugene O’Neill became involved in the Players. In the Village, several of the playwright’s works were produced, including Bound East for Cardiff and Before Breakfast. In the first two years of the theater, O’Neill would have several other works brought to the stage, some of which would later be performed on Broadway. In the 1918-19 season, the New York City Building Commission forced the group to stop using 139 MacDougal as a theater. They found a building owned by their landlord three doors down at 133 MacDougal. They began renting the former stable and added a scenery shop and dressing rooms, as well as offices upstairs. By this point, Edna St. Vincent Millay was working with the Players as an actor and within a few years would herself become an acclaimed playwright and poet. The Provincetown Playhouse would continue to produce influential and experimental performances well into the twentieth century and served as a training ground for some of the most revered playwrights in American cinema. O'Neill alone would go on to win the Pulitzer Prize four times as well as the Nobel Prize for Literature. Both Bette Davis and Claudette Colbert made their New York stage debut in the theater. Edward Albee and Sam Shepherd had plays staged at the playhouse and Charles Busch's Vampire Lesbians of Sodom ran for five years at the theater, becoming one of the most successful Off Broadway plays in history. In 1984, NYU purcahsed several of the townhouses on MacDougal Street, including the building which housed the Provincetown Playhouse. Despite the objections of preservationists and the theater community, the university demolished virtually all of the theater, leaving little more than the facade and a theater that holds the same name.

The Provincetown Players originated in 1915 in Provincetown, Massachusetts, but they are far more well-known for the Greenwich Village theater that bears their name. The theater opened in 1916 and is considered by many to be one of the most significant sites in the history of American drama. Eugene O’Neill, the only American playwright to win a Nobel Prize for literature, was closely associated with the theater, with several of his early plays being produced there. NYU acquired the property and demolished most of the building in 2008, although a theater with the Provincetown name remains at 133 MacDougal.

Former Location of Provincetown Playhouse 

In 1964, two architectural
firms&nbsp;were chosen to submit proposals and the team of Philip Johnson and
Richard&nbsp;Foster won. They had previously collaborated on the famous Glass
House in New Canaan, Connecticut, and the New York State pavilion at the 1964
New York World’s Fair. Construction began in the late 1960s, and when&nbsp;the
Bobst Library&nbsp;opened in September 1973, the building was well received,
though&nbsp;the design had&nbsp;a few critics
who felt that it blocked sunlight into the nearby park.&nbsp; 
 
The Avery Fisher Center for Music and Media contains one of the largest academic
media archives in the world with 48,000 videos, 115,000 audio recordings in
various formats, and 102,000 print items, such as books, periodicals and
scores. The library also contains several special collections. The mission of
the Fales Library &amp; Special Collections is to acquire, preserve and provide
access to a wide range of primary research materials in their original formats.
It offers rare books and manuscripts in several categories: English and
American literature, the Downtown Collection, the Food and Cookery Collection,
the Riot Grrrl Collection, and the general Special Collections of the NYU
Libraries.&nbsp; 
 
The Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives&nbsp;is a&nbsp;well-known
center for scholarly research on organized labor and left-wing politics.
According to the library's website, its "primary focus is the complex
relationship between trade unionism and progressive politics and how this
relationship evolved over time. Archival print, photographic, film, and oral
history collections describe the history of the labor movement and how it
related to the broader struggle for economic, social, and political
change." The New York University Archives serves as the repository for
NYU's historical records, documenting the history of the University and
providing source material for administrators, faculty, students, alumni, and
others. Poly Archives&nbsp;exists to collect, preserve, and provide access to
the records of the former Polytechnic Institute and the current School of
Engineering.&nbsp; 
 
When a homeless sophomore named&nbsp;Steve Stanzak revealed on his blog that he
was literally living in the Bobst Library's basement (which is open 24 hours a
day every day) due to a lack&nbsp;of student housing he could afford, he became
a minor celebrity. The administration responded by giving him a free dormitory
room for the semester, free of charge. Stanzak claims that the resumption of
his anonymity after his brief brush with fame bothered him "just slightly."

The Elmer Holmes Bobst Library (often known as The Bobst Library, or just "The Bobst") is the flagship institution of the 11-unit New York University (NYU) library system, and is named after the philanthropist, Elmer Holmes Bobst, whose gift made the library possible. Designed by distinguished architects Philip Johnson and Richard Foster and first opened in 1973, it is a twelve-story red sandstone building, located opposite the southeast corner of Washington Square Park in New York City's Greenwich Village. It is the primary research facility for NYU and currently serves 6000 people every day, who check out over a million books a year. It also houses many other print and non-print resources. As the library's website states, “Bobst Library's special collections and archives house significant resources, rare books, personal papers [and] University history.”

Elmer Holmes Bobst Library

Located in the Asch
Building in Manhattan, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory was the largest producer
of women’s blouses in New York City in 1911. At the time, the garment industry
was heavily segregated along gender lines. Most of the workers occupying the
higher paying jobs with better conditions were men. Women were seen as
temporary workers who would only work until they were married. This caused both
their bosses and current union leaders to see them as not worth protecting or
fighting for, despite high levels of militancy among the Jewish workers. A lack
of regulation and union presence enabled factory owners to take advantage of a
vulnerable population of workers.

&nbsp;Preceding the fire, New York had no codes
or regulation for factory safety standards. The workspaces were cramped, filled
with wood and various debris. There were no sprinklers, fire exits, fire
drills, or evacuation plans in place. The dismal job prospects for immigrants and
the lax safety and union laws allowed factory owners to cut many corners in
terms of safety and job quality without risking losing their workers.

&nbsp;When the fire started the cramped floors
crowded with tables and machinery impeded workers from reaching the exits. Many
of the doors were locked, trapping workers inside. This was common practice at
the time, with the goal of preventing workers from leaving on breaks without
permission or theft. The doors that were unlocked opened inwards, confusing the
masses of panicked workers. On an average day, the factory had around 500
workers in the building. By the end of the fire, 146 had perished. One hundred twenty-three of the
deceased were women. Much of the blame lay at the feet of negligent factory
owners whose management choices had unnecessarily endangered their workers.

&nbsp;The fire alone wasn’t what made the
victims of the fire the rallying cry for worker safety. Workplace death rates
were high across the board. It is estimated that more than 100 workers died
every day on the job around 1911. After the fire, hundreds of activists across
the state and the nation pushed for fundamental reforms. For some, such as
Frances Perkins, who stood helpless watching the factory burn, the tragedy
inspired a lifetime of advocacy for workers’ rights. The fire also led to the
creation of organizations to investigate the conditions of factories and the
passage of safety laws and aid organizations.

&nbsp;The fire left a mark on the culture of the
nation and New York City in general. The building was listed on the National
Register of Historic Places and was named a National Historic Landmark in
1991. “Remember the Triangle Fire Coalition” was formed in 2008. Located at
23-29 Washington Place in New York City, the property is now used as classrooms
and offices by New York University and is not open to the public. The fire
continues to be a popular reference for those continuing to fight for workers’
rights and oversight of businesses today.

On Saturday, March 25, 1911, a fire broke out on the top floors of the Triangle Shirtwaist factory in the ten-story Asch Building just off of Washington Square. Managers often locked the exits to prevent workers from sneaking out for a break and to prevent theft.  Trapped inside because the owners had locked the fire escape exit doors, workers jumped to their deaths. In a half an hour, the fire was over, and 146 of the 500 workers were dead. Most of the several hundred Triangle Shirtwaist employees were teenage girls, recent Jewish and Italian immigrants. The Asch Building is now known as the Brown Building and is part of the New York University campus.  

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, 1911

Edward Hopper was born in Nyack, and after finishing his education at the New York School of Art, he moved between various cities in Europe and Canada. In the 1910s, Hopper was back in the United States and struggling for recognition. After a showing at the Armory Show, Hopper began selling more paintings and was able to move into an apartment in Greenwich Village. Hopper moved into the top floor of 3 Washington Square in 1913, along with his wife, Jo, also a painter. The apartment, which overlooked Washington Square Park, was appealing to Hopper because he was told that his hero, painter Thomas Eakins, had painted there. Additionally, a skylight and windows overlooking the park provided ample natural light. The apartment had no heat and no private bath, and the Hoppers lived very simply, with only minimal furnishings. In 1932, the couple took the front room as well. Hopper used the south end of the apartment, overlooking the park, while Jo used the north end. The views Hopper had of Greenwich Village from his fourth floor window and the roof, where he also painted, inspired much of his work, and sharp-eyed students of his work can still find some of the structures immortalized in his work on the streets around Washington Square Park. By 1946, the apartment, along with the twelve on either side of it, became the property of NYU, which raised the rents and threatened to evict the artist. In what Jo Hopper referred to as the "Battle of Washington Square," the couple's dispute with the university went on for some time, until Village residents came to their defense and successfully lobbied in favor of the Hoppers. They remained in the apartment until their deaths--Edward's in 1967 and Jo the following year. The building is now one of several that houses NYU's School of Social Work. The couple's bedroom and bath and have been converted, but the studios remain largely as they were when Edward and Jo lived there. They are maintained by the University, which occasionally opens them for tours.

The building at 3 Washington Square now belongs to New York University, the building's fourth floor was the home, for many years, of artist Edward Hopper. He moved into the back room of the top floor in 1913 but eventually took the front room as well. Hopper chose the building because he believed Thomas Eakins, an artist he greatly admired, had painted there, and also because a skylight and windows overlooking Washington Square provided him with abundant natural light. The building is now one of several that houses NYU's School of Social Work, but the top floor apartment remains largely as it was when Hopper resided there. He lived there until his death in 1967.

Former Home and Studio of Edward Hopper 

The curious little alley known as Washington Mews traces its history back to 1801, when a sea captain, Richard Randall, died. He left the land where the Mews is as well as some surrounding parcels for the establishment of a home for elderly sailors, Sailors Snug Harbor. Snug Harbor was eventually constructed on Staten Island, where it remains, although it has long been a cultural institution rather than a sailors' home. Randall's plans were not followed, however, and the land was leased to people as they built large homes near Washington Square, with the proceeds used to fund the construction of Snug Harbor. As two rows of homes were being built, lesses constructed an alley between the two which would be used for stables. Building a private alley for the construction of stables was something of an oddity in New York City but was a common practice in other large cities, such as London. The houses on the north side of the Mews were built (as stables) from 1829 to 1833; their placement allowed for abundant garden space for the elegant homes then being built near the Square. Over time, the stables were converted into residences ("mews" refers to stables that have been converted into homes), some of which were home to a number of the city's well-heeled residents. Among the early residents of the Mews were John Taylor Johnston, the first president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the architect Richard Morris Hunt. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, founder of the Whitney Museum, also lived there. By the twentieth century, the Mews became a popular neighborhood for writers and artists. The buildings were open and airy and provided ample working space for artists, who increasingly flocked to the Village because of its offbeat, bohemian character. By 1939, the area was so popular that a row of two-story houses built to look like converted stables were built across the street from the original structures. Edward Hopper had a residence and studio there, and the novelist John Dos Passos lived at 14A. In 1949 or 1950, New York University leased the property from Sailors Snug Harbor. The university still holds the lease to the Mews, and most of the houses are used for faculty housing or for other university purposes. Rising crime in the 1980s prompted the university to install a six-foot high gate at the Fifth Avenue end of the alley, but the gates remain open during the day, and many visitors to the Village wander down the quaint street, unaware that it is actually private property.

Even in a city as well-documented as New York, there are still places that manage to suprise. Just off Washington Square Park is Washington Mews, a cobblestoned, gated street that remains as one of the few vestiges of the Greenwich Village of old. Over the years, a number of famous New Yorkers have called the Mews home, including John Dos Passos, Edward Hopper, and Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney. Though it is a treasured part of the city, the short street is actually private property. Like much of the Village, it is owned by New York University.

Washington Mews 

In New York City, as in numerous large cities, many of its most-loved parks were once used as potter's fields. Potter's fields were burial grounds for the poor, the unclaimed, those who died during epidemics, and, in some cases, those who were executed as criminals. What is now Madison Square Park was the city's first potter's field; it began to be used in 1794 and within three years was full. In 1797, the city purchased land for a new potter's field in what is now Washington Square Park. The city's parcel was bordered by Greenwich Lane on the north, Fourth Street on the south, Wooster Street on the east, and Minetta Creek on the west. The area made up roughly two-thirds of what is today the park. Many of the people buried in the cemetary were indigent, but yellow fever epidemics in 1798 and in several subsequent years led to hundreds being interred there, as churches were forbidden from burying victims of the epidemic in their own burial grounds. But there was also at least one person who was executed and buried in the grounds. In 1819, a nineteen-year-old enslaved woman named Rose Butler was executed for arson. Butler admitted to setting fire to her owners' home, although no one died and there were no injuries. Butler's case eventually went all the way to the Supreme Court, but eventually she was hanged for her crime. Though there are anecdotal accounts of other executions at the potter's field, Butler's is the only known hanging there. In the years following Butler's execution, New Yorkers' attitudes regarding slavery would change. In the colonial period, New York had one of America's highest populations of slaves. In 1827, however, the state emancipated all of its slaves. The area around the one-time potter's field would change, as well. As wealthier residents began moving into the area, they became increasingly opposed to having a gallows and a rapidly filling burial ground nearby. The area was next used as a military parade ground before eventually being transformed into one of the city's most beloved parks.

Though visitors to the park may not be aware of it, New York's Washington Square Park was once a potter's field, where thousands of residents were interred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Not only was the burial ground used for paupers and victims of epidemics, it was also the site of executions. The last known execution to take place at the site was in 1819. Rose Butler, a young enslaved woman, was executed for arson in an attempt to kill her owners. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court before Butler's execution for her crime.

Execution of Rose Butler (Former potter's field, now Washington Square Park)

The Washington Square Association erected the flagpole in 1920 to commemorate the neighborhood residents who lost their lives in World War I.  It originally aligned with the Arch but in 1970 was moved to the east where it is located today.   Unfortunately, the base of this flagpole lists only the men from the northern portion of the park's neighborhood who were predominantly WASPs.  None of the predominantly Italian-American or African American residents who lived along the southern portion of the park and equally gave their lives are included.  

Base of the World War I Memorial Flagpole, Washington Square Park

Giuseppe Garibaldi was born in the Mediterranean coastal city of Nice in 1807. From a family of fishermen and coastal traders, he became a sailor, then a certified merchant captain, and finally a member of the navy of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. In 1833, Garibaldi met Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, and joined his secret revolutionary society, Young Italy. The following year, Garibaldi participated in a mutiny meant to spark a republican revolution in Piedmont-Sardinia. When the conspiracy failed, he avoided arrest and execution by fleeing first to France and then across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil.  Ultimately, Garibaldi spent twelve years in South America (1836-1848). It proved to be a formative period in his life and integral to his transformation into an international military hero. In the late 1830s, he served as a naval captain for the province of Rio Grande do Sul, which at the time was in revolt against the Brazilian government. While the province’s bid for independence was unsuccessful, Garibaldi began to garner fame throughout South America. Later, in the early 1840s, Garibaldi joined the Uruguayans in their struggle against Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas. While fighting against Argentine imperialism, he raised a volunteer legion of Italian exiles (known as the Redshirts) and gained invaluable experience in military leadership and guerilla warfare. Moreover, Garibaldi’s exploits during the war won him increasing fame throughout Europe, especially on the Italian peninsula.  In 1848, Garibaldi returned to Italy. The following year, he fought to defend the short-lived Roman Republic established by Mazzini and others. Garibaldi’s heroics in battle against French troops along with his daring escape from Austrian forces, however, helped to grow his fame. After the downfall of the Roman Republic, he went into exile once again, eventually taking up residence in New York City. In 1854, the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Count of Cavour, permitted Garibaldi to return to Italy. He then took up residence on the island of Caprera, where he lived as a farmer for a few years.    Four years later, Piedmont-Sardinia was preparing for war with Austria. To this end, the Count of Cavour offered Garibaldi a commission as a major general in the Piedmontese army. After war broke out in early 1859, Garibaldi helped lead Piedmontese forces to victory. Defeated, Austria conceded Lombardy to France, which in turn gave it to Piedmont-Sardinia. Aside from Lombardy, Piedmont-Sardinia also annexed Tuscany, Modena, and Parma.  After the war with Austria, Garibaldi turned his attention southward. In 1860, he led a volunteer army of roughly 1,000 men to Sicily and then to Naples. After conquering both, he handed them over to Piedmont-Sardinia. The following year, a new national parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy. In 1862 and 1867, Garibaldi led two unsuccessful offensives against Rome, which at the time was still under papal rule and protected by French troops. In 1866, he once again led troops to victory against Austrian forces, which allowed Italy to acquire Venice. In 1870, French forces withdrew from Rome to fight Prussia. After France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Italian troops entered the city and annexed the Papal States, completing the long process of Italian unification.  In the early 1870s, Garibaldi retired to his home on the island of Caprera. He spent his final years reading, writing, and farming. He died in 1882.  Shortly after Garibaldi’s death, members of New York City’s Italian-American community formed a committee to raise funds for the erection of a statue to commemorate the late Italian patriot. The committee hired Italian-born sculptor Giovanni Turini to design the statue. For Turini, the commission was not just an opportunity to earn money, but also a chance to honor his former commander. Turini, in fact, had volunteered to serve under Garibaldi during Italy’s war with Austria in 1866. Dedicated in Washington Square Park in 1888, Turini’s work, an over-life-sized bronze statue of Garibaldi, depicts the Italian hero in military garb attempting to draw his sword. It rests on a tall, elaborate granite pedestal. In 1970, the statue was moved a short distance from its original location to accommodate the construction of a promenade in the park. When workers relocated the statue, they discovered a time capsule containing items from the 1880s.

This statue commemorates nineteenth-century soldier and Italian patriot, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). His military victories in the 1850s and 1860s facilitated the unification of the Italian peninsula and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. Shortly after Garibaldi’s death in 1882, members of New York City’s Italian-American community formed a committee to raise funds for the erection of a statue to commemorate the late Italian patriot. The committee hired Italian-born sculptor Giovanni Turini to design the statue. For Turini, the commission was not just an opportunity to earn money, but also a chance to honor his former commander. Turini, in fact, had volunteered to serve under Garibaldi during Italy’s war with Austria in 1866. Dedicated in Washington Square Park in 1888, Turini’s work, an over-life-sized bronze statue of Garibaldi, depicts the Italian hero in military garb attempting to draw his sword. It rests on a tall, elaborate granite pedestal. In 1970, the statue was moved a short distance from its original location to accommodate the construction of a promenade in the park.

Washington Square Park

Former Residence of Suffragist Inez Milholland

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information