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Additional Information&nbsp; The Georgia Capitol Museum is housed within the capitol building and is a department of the University of Georgia Libraries. The roots of the museum date back to 1889 when the Georgia state legislature tasked the state geologist to collect mineral, plant, and soil samples to illustrate both the state's scientific and economic&nbsp;resources. The governor designated the corridors of the Capitol's fourth floor to temporarily house the museum one year later. The museum's mission and collection&nbsp;broadened in 1955 after the unit was placed under the guise of the Georgia Secretary of State.&nbsp; Unofficial Mission Statement:&nbsp; "The Museum seeks to preserve and interpret the history of the Georgia Capitol itself as well as the events that have taken place within its walls. To carry out this purpose, the Museum collects, maintains, and exhibits significant artifacts, including historic flags and works of art, within the State Capitol."

Drum of the 3rd Georgia, Georgia Capitol Museum Hall of Valor

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Democracy Restored: A History of the Georgia State Capitol

Georgia's Historic Capitals: New Georgia Encyclopedia

The Georgia State Capitol was designed by Chicago architects Willoughby J. Edbrooke and Franklin P. Burnham to mirror the Classical design of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Construction of the building was completed by Miles and Horne, a construction company headquartered in Toledo, OH,  in 1889. The structure boasts a four-story portico that includes a large stone pediment supported by six Corinthian columnns. The Georgia Coat of Arms is engraved on the pediment alongside two additional figures. The building was among the first to incorporate centralized steam heat, elevators, and a combination of both gas and electric lights. The Capitol has undergone many renovations since its construction, the most notable being the gilding of the structure's dome in 1958. 

Georgia Capitol and Museum

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This tour begins at several historic buildings and landmarks within Atlanta's Peachtree Center and moves south to include two dozen historic buildings, monuments, and markers in the heart of downtown Atlanta.  The tour concludes at the State Capital. The tour includes landmark buildings and places related to icons of Atlanta history from turn-of-the century business leaders to influential Atlanta residents such as Marin Luther King, Jr. and the founders of Coca-Cola. 

The Carnegie Building was originally called the Wynne-Claughton Building when it was built in 1925 in downtown Atlanta. The twelve-story structure next became known as the Mortgage Guaranty Building from 1929 to 1962. The Carnegie Building name began in 1963 and ended in 1989. The building is a combination of elements of the Beaux-Arts Style with its applied limestone decoration and features of the late Commercial style of architecture. The building's curved corners fit the triangular lot. The Carnegie Library once stood across the street.Morgan T. Wynne, born in 1900, partnered with John Crowell to form an insurance agency; they partnered with Edward Napoleon Claughton, born in 1892, a financial consultant, in 1924. The Wynne-Claughton Realty Sales Corporation was located in a building on Ivy Street. The skyscraper was built for the company from 1924 to 1925 at the location of the former Ewell Hotel. The architect was G. Lloyd Preacher (1882 - 1972), who is well-known for designing the city's neo-Gothic City Hall in 1930 and another Atlanta office building, the Medical Arts Building, in 1927. Preacher moved from Augusta, Georgia, to Atlanta around 1922; he moved his architecture offices into the new Wynne-Claughton Building.The building housed the offices of a wide range of companies and organizations in the 1920s, from the Oakland Motor Car Company to the state offices of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. The building has also been home to the Atlanta Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau.The building's exterior was designated a landmark by the City of Atlanta in 1990. Thanks to the actions of preservationists and developers, the building is one of only a handful of neighboring historic structures within a city dominated by modern construction. The building is now home to the 150-room Courtyard Atlanta Downtown with a restaurant on the ground floor. The building is significant not only for its age and architecture but also for its association with influential businesses and organizations.

Atlanta's Carnegie Building is a twelve-story structure that was constructed from 1924 to 1925. The wedge-shaped building was originally known as the Wynne-Claughton Building and is composed of reinforced concrete with a brick veneer and limestone detailing. The Carnegie Library once stood across the street from this building. In 2012, the Carnegie Building was added to the National Register. The building is one of only a handful of early twentieth-century buildings in this section of Atlanta, such as the Winecoff Hotel which was completed in 1913. The building now serves as the home of the Courtyard Atlanta Downtown hotel.

Carnegie Building (Wynne-Claughton Building)

Eerily similar to the audacity of those who built the &nbsp;"unsinkable Titanic," the Winecoff was constructed one year after the Titanic sunk, yet its builders boldly claimed the hotel was fireproof. Just a the Titanic was ill-prepared for a maritime disaster, the hotel did not have fire escapes, a sprinkler system, fire doors, or&nbsp;an alarm system. Worse, the only stairway hotel was wrapped around the elevator in the center of the building, which proved unusable during the fire. Wallpaper-lined walls allowed the fire to spread rapidly and made the hallways nearly impossible to navigate.1&nbsp; All told, the 119 people that died, albeit in 1946, can attribute their deaths to the same audacity that accounted for many of the deaths associated with the Titanic that was built around the same time. In addition to the 119, another 90 were injured; roughly 209 of the 280 guests were injured or killed.2 Numerous people attempted to escape by jumping to nearby buildings, fashioning rope ladders out of bed sheets, or just jumping with hopes of landing safely (most died on impact). &nbsp;The inability for people to escape and the subsequent horrific deaths that resulted inspired President Truman to convene a commission intent on creating tougher standards for hotels regarding fire prevention and fire escapability measures.3 The origin of the fire has never been discovered. But, its legacy helped secure safer hotel fire-safety forever thereafter. Much of that resulting from a famous Pulitzer Prize winning photo by Arnold Hardy, an amateur photographer who famously had only one flash bulb remaining and caught, sadly, a women falling to her death. The Associated Press picked up the photo and it was then seen by the entire nation. It is one of many examples of how photojournalism highly affected culture from the 1930s to 1970s, when magazines such as Life Magazine grew to be very popular.&nbsp;

At fifteen stories high, the Winecoff Hotel was considered one of the first skyscrapers in Atlanta in 1913. It also claimed to be a fire proof building. However, on  December 7, 1946 a large fire claimed the lives of 119 guests and staff. The tragedy remains the deadliest hotel fire in United States history. The hotel reopened in 1951 as the Peachtree Hotel along with numerous modifications and added safety features. The hotel is now the Ellis Hotel. 

Ellis Hotel and the Winecoff Hotel Fire of 1946

The building is significant for its architecture, as it was meant to be a work of art in its own right and a monument to one man, Asa Candler, who spared no expense. To this end, the building's exterior&nbsp;features elaborate detailing and is adorned with numerous sculptures. Inside, the floor plans were designed for various professions including doctors, surgeons, dentists, and bankers. Six elevators, duplicate air conditioning and electrical systems were installed (to serve as backups), and there was even a barbershop.&nbsp;&nbsp; The Candler Building served as the headquarters of Atlanta's Central Bank and Trust Corporation, a bank founded by Candler in 1906, until 1922 when it was absorbed by&nbsp;Citizens &amp; Southern National Bank.&nbsp;

The Candler Building is a seventeen-story structure commissioned by Coca-Cola founder and executive, Asa Griggs Candler, and was completed in 1906. The building remained the tallest structure in the city until 1954. "Candler Investment Co. 1904 Geo. E. Murphy Architect" is inscribed on the building's cornerstone and the structure is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The building continues to serve as office space.

The Candler Building

A.G. Rhodes and J.J Haverty, two prominent Atlanta furniture retailers and investors, developed the building that stood as Atlanta's tallest skyscraper during the middle part of the twentieth century. The Rhodes-Haverty Building represents a transition in skyscraper development in Atlanta from the Beaux-Arts eclecticism to modern forms that prevailed by the mid-twentieth century.  Amos G. Rhodes (1850 - 1928) moved to Atlanta in 1875 from Kentucky after the Civil War, having worked in his home state as a farmer and as then as a laborer for the L &amp; N Railroad in Atlanta. Rhodes built his fortune by opening a series of furniture stores. He opened the first store in 1879 and then eventually operated more than twenty-two stores throughout the Southeast. James Joseph Haverty (1858 - 1939) was born in Atlanta in 1858. By 1885, Haverty organized the successful furniture retail outlet, J.J. Haverty and Company. Both men also participated in numerous church, community, government, and philanthropic endeavors. Haverty and Rhodes merged their operations in 1889, forming the Rhodes-Haverty Furniture Company. In 1891, J.J. Haverty and the company headquarters moved westward to St. Louis, Missouri, for three years where the company expanded and built new showrooms. J.J Haverty returned in 1894 and continued to open more stores. Ten years later, the duo opened a grand flagship store in Atlanta. In 1908, the two dissolved their furniture-business partnership and divided the stores. Nevertheless, the two continued to work as investors as part of the Rhodes-Haverty Investment Company leading to the naming of this Atlanta skyscraper. Planning for the Rhodes-Haverty Building began many years before actual construction. The Rhodes-Haverty Investment Company petitioned the mayor and General Council of Atlanta in 1924 to clearly fix the location of the lot bordered by Peachtree Street, James Street (now Williams Street), and Forsyth Street. With the lot defined, loans were able to be obtained to construct a modern, fireproof office building. Construction began in 1928 but by that time A.G. Rhodes had passed away. The building opened in October 1929, just as the Great Depression took hold over much of the nation. Atlanta's airport, Candler Field, opened in 1930 as the nation's third-largest transportation center behind New York and Chicago. The Depression stalled growth and construction of new projects, but it did not reverse the city's growth and Atlanta remained the home of the largest financial institution south of Philadelphia as Robert W. Woodruff brought about a three-bank merger to create the First National Bank. The Rhodes-Haverty Building stands twenty-one-stories tall making it the tallest skyscraper in Atlanta from 1929 through 1954. The building possesses a steel frame with an exterior comprised of buff-colored brick, granite base, and a geometrical, Terra Cotta trim on its upper floors. The Rhodes-Haverty firm owned the building until 1946 when they sold it Georgia Properties Company. The building changed hands a few times over the next decades and is now home to Marriott's Residence Inn.

This twenty-one-story skyscraper was completed in 1929 and stood as Atlanta's tallest building until 1954. The building was designed by real estate investors J.J. Haverty and A.G. Rhodes who made their fortunes in the furniture business and had previously formed a retail partnership. The building was financed by the Rhodes-Haverty Investment Company and was completed in the same month as the stock market crash of 1929. The Depression stalled but did not reverse the city's growth and the building has been home to numerous tenants over the past century and now serves as the home of Marriott's Residence Inn.  

Rhodes–Haverty Building, Atlanta (Marriott Residence Inn)

Charles E. Freeman opened one of Atlanta's first automobile dealerships in 1922 and that business grew into the Charles E. Freeman Company by 1927. The licensed Ford Dealership was successful and Freeman opened a new dealership at this location in 1930. The historic building remains in Atlanta and now serves a loft apartment complex. The building stands as a reminder of the building boom that occurred in the just as the Roaring '20s gave way to the Great Depression and the way many buildings have been repurposed over the years in ways that reflect the changing habits of consumers and demands for real estate.  The economic boom of the 1920s swept Atlanta, helping boost Freeman's success by the late 1920s. Plans for his new building were complete prior to the Wall Street crash in October of 1929. Though the Depression stalled some projects, the dealership building opened its doors in 1930 when Atlanta continued to see an overall building boom; an estimated $35,000,000 worth of construction occurred that year in Atlanta. Atlanta's airport, Candler Field, opened in 1930 and became the nation's third-largest transportation center behind New York and Chicago. The commercial structure enjoys intricate Art Deco detailing and craftsmanship comprised of terra-cotta frieze with floral and geometric patterns and vertical projections. The building's architect, G. Lloyd Preacher, had designed Atlanta's City Hall building, which also opened in February 1930.Despite the continued construction in 1930, that year proved to be the climax for Atlanta's building boom. The economic decline eventually took its toll on the Freeman Ford Agency, as well, which occupied the building for only two years before moving into a new location. Fron 1932 through the 1990s, the building served as the home to numerous occupants, namely auto parts and tire supply stores, auto repair, and functioning as a parking garage. It also once operated as a warehouse for U. S. Dept. Of Commerce. Since the late 1990s, it has been the home to loft apartments. Today, with a nod towards its genesis, the apartment complex goes by the name of Ford Factory Lofts. The building stands as a monument to different stages of twentieth-century history. The initial design and construction occurred at a time when the national economy was booming, allowing people to buy such items as automobiles and businesses to build larger structures. But, the short lifespan of the dealership speaks to the troubles presented by the Great Depression. But by the late twentieth century, many older commercial buildings throughout the U.S. transitioned into retails outlets, restaurants, and loft apartments, including the Freeman building.

This Art Deco building first stood as the home to a Ford Dealership and assembly center that was operated by the Charles E. Freeman Company. Plans and designs for the building occurred during the height of America's booming 1920s economy and the building demonstrates the craftsmanship of the era. During the early 1930s the dealership moved out and the building was home to a car repair center and later served as a parking garage. Today, the building operates as the Ford Factory Loft Apartment complex. 

Ford Freeman Building

Missionaries from the American Missionary Association (AMA)&nbsp;established the Storrs School in 1865. This school, located on Houston Street near Piedmont Avenue became a gathering place for African American residents of the city and served as both a school and a meeting place for religious services.&nbsp;In 1867, African American residents of Atlanta, together with&nbsp;white missionaries from the AMA organized the&nbsp;Congregational Church of Christ. The congregation met at the&nbsp;Storrs School until 1877, when the AMA secured land&nbsp;on the corner of Houston and Courtland Streets. Members contributed money and labor to build a modest frame church.&nbsp;The church was pastored by white members of the AMA until&nbsp;1894, when&nbsp;Dr. Henry Hugh Proctor took leadership of the congregation. In 1908, Proctor secured the construction of the present building. Dr. Booker T. Washington, the most famous Black educator of the era, attended the dedication of the new church.&nbsp;At this time, the church established numerous missions and&nbsp;outreach programs. The church also offered educational programs for the community,&nbsp;including courses for young children to prepare them for school and classes for adults. Reflecting the growth of segregation in public&nbsp;accommodations and the discrimination faced at public institutions, the&nbsp;church also maintained a library and&nbsp;employment bureau, as well as a&nbsp;gymnasium. &nbsp;

One of the oldest African American Congregational churches in the United States, First Congregational Church of Atlanta dates back to 1867 when former slaves and free men and women of color gathered together to hold services. The congregation received support from the American Missionary Association, a group of Northern African Americans and whites who traveled to the South and helped establish schools and churches in the aftermath of the Civil War. 

First Congregational Church of Atlanta

The Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History is located in Atlanta's Sweet Auburn district, which is known for its rich African American history. The library's history dates back to the beginning of what was called the Negro History Collection in 1921. Since then, this primary resource in public education for and about African Americans in the South has grown immensely. Today the library is undergoing renovations to house its growing collection.The library's history begins at the Auburn Branch of the Carnegie Library of Atlanta in 1921. The current location on Auburn Avenue would come decades later. However, the library was initially a collection founded to open public library access up to African Americans in Atlanta. The mission was very successful, and the collection expanded. In 1934 the branch officially organized the Negro History Collection under the leadership of Annie L. McPheeters, an African American librarian. The collection included books, journals, magazines, and newspapers written by and for African Americans. Meanwhile, Atlanta's African American population was expanding. With a growing appeal for an African American library in West Atlanta, the West Hunter Branch Library was founded on the corner of West Hunter Street and Morris Brown Drive in 1949. The library finally desegregated a decade later in 1959. In 1970, the Negro History collection was moved to its third home at the Carnegie Library building in downtown Atlanta. It was during this stay that the collection was renamed the Samuel W. Williams Collection on Black America, after a famous African American scholar based in Atlanta. In 1994, the collection came to its final home on Auburn Avenue. The collection eventually outgrew this four-story structure, and renovations are currently underway to expand the Auburn Avenue Research Library.Today, the library offers both a glimpse into the past for African Americans and cultural ties to Africa through visual arts, film, and writing. The library hosts speakers, exhibitions, and film screenings to connect Atlanta's residents to the African American experience.

The Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History is situated in Atlanta's Sweet Auburn Historic District and is part of the Atlanta-Fulton Public Library System. The reference and archival collections housed within the facility are dedicated to both the study and preservation of African and African American history and culture. The research library was recognized by the state of Georgia in 2001 when it was awarded the Governor's Award in the Humanities. 

Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History

African American Panoramic Experience (APEX) offers a variety of exhibits that change three to four times a year and range from hair styles to art, dance and African history.The Museum, epitomizes the rich and often untold story of African and African-American history and culture. The museum is housed within a 100-year-old building, erected by African-American masons. Visitors can grow in appreciation and understanding of the African-American experience and social contributions through exhibits, artifacts and presentations spanning centuries, from ancient African civilizations to contemporary events. The first video is projected on the wall in front of the trolley and it provides history of Africans before they became slaves. It speaks on history that goes all the way back to 6500 B.C. It discusses the success of Africans before the slave trade and how there was Queens, Pharaohs, and war leaders. Also the wealth of Africa because of the ivory.The second video is on how African slaves&nbsp;became African Americans, but still faced struggles of segregation; however, they progressed economically and&nbsp;civilly right on Auburn Avenue. For example, Blacks started&nbsp;owning their own business in the 1800s, which included, drug stores, news articles, and hotels.The APEX was Founded by Dan Moore. Unlike other African American Museums the APEX&nbsp; Mr. Moore wanted a place to celebrate and honor contributions of African Americans. The APEX's mission statement is "Founded in 1978 to chronicle &amp; present African American Art, History &amp; Culture, our purpose is to inform &amp; enlighten youth &amp; the broad base public to the many positive achievements and contributions of African Americans. We endeavor to promote intercultural understanding, expand racial &amp; ethnic tolerances, and to encourage positive avenues in Black youth. Our philosophy is that bigotry and prejudice&nbsp;are fostered by ignorance and that hopelessness and despair felt by many Black youth are fueled by a lack of positive exposure. We use vivid &amp; entertaining mediums to light a spark, to make a difference."&nbsp;APEX Museum aims to accurately interpret and present history from an African American perspective. It strives to help all American and international visitors better understand and appreciate the contributions of African Americans to America, as well as the world.

The African-American Panoramic Experience (APEX) Museum is situated in downtown Atlanta's Sweet Auburn Historic District. The museum includes numerous exhibits and programs related to the local, regional and national experience of people of color. The museum also offers programs for children and community lectures and other events that present the African American perspective throughout history. The museum was established by Dan Moore in hopes of highlighting the contributions of African Americans. Since it opened in 1978, thousands of visitors from more than forty countries have toured the museum. 

The APEX Museum

Asa Candler, head of Coca-Cola, was mostly uninterested in bottling the popular soft-drink. "Coke," as it was famously called, was primarily distributed by taps at local soda shops through the 1880s and into the 1890s. Candler was solicited by several individuals who wanted to bottle the drink. Benjamin Thomas and Joseph Whitehead gained exclusive rights to bottle Coca-Cola and distribute it throughout the Southeast, Southwest, and Midwest. Thomas then opened the first plant in Chattanooga, and Whitehead, along with investor John Lupton, opened the second plant in downtown Atlanta. Whitehead began marketing the product, and the business quickly outgrew the original facility. The structure was designated a national historic landmark in 1983 and today houses the Georgia State University Baptist Student Union.

The Dixie Coca-Cola Bottling Company Plant is the oldest surviving structure directly connected to the early production of Coca-Cola. The building served as the headquarters for Coca-Cola's parent company, Dixie Coca-Cola Bottling Company, from 1900 to 1901. A uniquely shaped building located on a corner, the Victorian-styled structure itself was built in 1891 and originally served as living quarters on the second floor and housed shops on the first floor before transforming into the Coca-Cola Bottling Plant. During its time operating as the Bottling Plant, the offices were located on the second floor, and the factory for syrup production could be found in the basement. 

Dixie Coca-Cola Bottling Company Plant

The Hurt Building, an 18-story building with an unusual triangular shape, was designed by engineer Joel Hurt, mainly in 1913 and then finished in 1926. The building stood as the seventeenth-largest building in the world when it opened (The Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta served as the building's first primary occupant). It serves as a reminder of the impact Hurt had on Atlanta, from his involvement in banks and businesses to designing buildings and building a streetcar line. However, much of his fortune was built on the backs of some African American convict labor, which proved to be a controversial practice due to the shadiness for which turned some Black Americans into convicts, and then the abuse they suffered as convicts while used as laborers. Joel Hurt (1850-1926), an Atlanta engineer and builder, spearheaded many of the city's developments during the early twentieth century with the Hurt Building carrying the ultimate mark of his design ideas, which leaned more towards efficiency instead of ornate features. (The Hurt Building is exemplary of the philosophies towards building skyscrapers by famed Chicago-school architect, Louis Sullivan.) One practical feature included steps to make the building as fireproof as possible for the era. World War created a delay in finishing the structure, although the building neared full completion by October of 2013; the onset of World War prevented the addition of the wings and light court, which did not end up getting done until 1924 to 1926.   The building stands as a monument to Hurt, whose legacy in Atlanta is rich, and complicated. He began his career in the railroad business in the Western U.S.and then in Georgia as a surveyor. He moved to Atlanta in 1875 (at the age of 25), where he organized the Atlanta Building and Loan Association, a business he ran for more than three decades. He also co-founded the Trust Company of Georgia, where he eventually served as its president for nine years. He also had a stake in the Coco-Cola company. In 1882, he organized the East Atlanta Land Company and subsequently designed and developed a residential area known as Inman Park, which he connected to the city via his Atlanta and Edgewood Street Railway Company that he opened in 1886 as Atlanta's first electric streetcar line. By controlling the streetcar line, and because of his banking interests, he was able to finance and build several skyscrapers, parks, theaters, and other projects that benefited from his rail line (including the Hurt Building).  One negative aspect of his life stemmed from alleged connections to abuse of his convict laborers that he used towards completing his projects. Hearings took place in 1908; many accused the Hurt family of cruelty and violence, leading to the death of some of the workers. The trials played a big part in Georgia banning convict leasing and forever tied Hurt to the shady practice of using "a new form of slavery," to build his fortune. Nevertheless, though aided mightily by cheap, and abused labor, Hurt left an indelible mark on Atlanta through his engineering and entrepreneurship, which helped the city grow. As a result, his name can be found on streets, parks, and the unique Hurt Skyscraper.

Joel Hurt, a wealthy engineer, bank owner, railroad industrialist, and entrepreneur developed Atlanta's first streetcar and built several commercial buildings and skyscrapers, including his namesake: the Hurt Building. Mainly built in 1913 (with finishing touches added more than a decade later), it stood as one of the tallest buildings in the world when finished. Though Hurt was an influential figure in the city's history and immortalized by having his name on the building and other features in Atlanta, it is also well-established that Hurt and his family built much of their fortune using African American laborers who were unpaid and abused through a system known as convict leasing. The practice was widespread in the South at the turn of the century and eventually banned after Hurt and many others were investigated and the practices they used were condemned. 

Hurt Building

The building was expanded in the late 1940s and the tower was added in 1963. The building stands as Atlanta's only exemplary modernistic style building and a reminder of the evolving city and its role as a hub of the communications industry during the early twentieth century. The building is located on a street named for Harold Ivy, a man credited as the first person of European descent to settle in what is now Atlanta. In 1821, the Creek Indians ceded the land east of the Chattahoochee River. Speculators purchased the land and divided it into lots, and Ivy purchased one of those lots in 1833. He then built a double log cabin near the current location of the Marriott Marquis in downtown Atlanta. Ivy died in 1841 after being thrown from a horse.In 1836, the Georgia State Legislature financed a land survey near Ivy's land that ultimately became the zero-mile post (and terminus) for the Western and Atlantic Railroad. The railroad helped Atlanta transition from a pioneer town to a city and eventually one of the nation's largest metropolitan areas, as demonstrated by the downtown region and skyscrapers that stand today. One of those buildings, of course, is the historic Southern Bell Telephone Company Building which is now home to AT&amp;T. The building also has ties to the first railroad line that came into Atlanta. The first private line connected the Union Passenger Station and Western &amp; Atlantic Freight Depot in 1877. In 1879, public telephone lines reached the city and Bell Telephone Company Atlanta Telephonic Exchange was established. (The first Bell company appeared in 1877 in Connecticut.) By the 1920s, telephone usage expanded substantially and Southern Bell hired more workers and needed more space which spurred the need for a new office building. The company also hoped to have a structure that would allow them to advance their operator technology. Mechanized panels allowed customers to use phone numbers after World War I and Southern Bell fully installed the panel system in 1923. The original purpose of the Southern Bell Building involved twenty-five floors, with ten floors dedicated to housing phone equipment and another fifteen stories intended for office space. However, shortly after construction started in September 1929, the stock market "Crash of '29" arrived followed by the Great Depression. Though the design always included plans to construct the building in stages, the Depression forced Southern Bell to delay the second stage of construction until after World War II. When construction did transpire in 1947-48, only eight floors were added; the twenty-five-floor plan never came to fruition. The 1963 addition of the brown tower, which seems oddly out of place, proved to be the last major addition to the tower.

Construction of Atlanta's Southern Bell Telephone Company Building occurred during three stages: 1929, 1947-48, and 1963. The onset of the Great Depression resulted in the completion of only six of the planned twenty-five-story building design. Though the structure never reached its planned height, it remains downtown Atlanta's only true example of modernistic design. The building also serves as a reminder of Atlanta's central role within the regional telephone and communications network. 

Southern Bell Telephone Building

The Bell Building was constructed in two parts, a 1907 original building and a 1922 addition to the left and to the rear of the original. The 1907 portion was built to support four more stories if needed; the addition brought machine-switching and the dial tone to Atlanta for the first time. The addition was designed by a well-known Atlanta architect, P. Thornton Marye, the architect of Terminal Station. A decorative keystone is above the eight original six-over-six windows in the four-bay 1907 portion; this part of the building is covered in sandstone blocks and includes the main entrance with a cast iron Southern Bell logo over the door. The newer front of the building is faced in white glazed terracotta and features the Bell logo. A light well on the flat, asphalt roof separates the two parts of the building. The building was little needed by Bell Telephone by 1968 who sold the structure to a bank, The Trust Company of Georgia, who planned to build two skyscrapers. Bell Telephone continued to lease the building. The second skyscraper was never built and the Bell Building was sold by the bank (now SunTrust) to Georgia State University in 2006. Mostly vacant since the 1980's, faded lettering from a Mexican restaurant above the plate glass street-level windows hints at a prior tenant of the front portion of the building. The first restaurant in the space was "The Mug" and lasted from 1981 into the 1990's. The later restaurant was "El Azteca" and it closed in 1997. The interior of the vacant building is reportedly in fair but deteriorating condition. Fancy original finishes on the portion of the building that the public would see include marble wainscoting, decorative crown moulding and coffered ceilings. The interior was connected to steam heat and retains radiators in many of the spaces. Some renovations took place for the restaurants with new walls meant to hide the view of the building's central staircase. There is also an electric-powered elevator from the 1920s or so that still worked at last check. The Atlanta Preservation Center lists the Bell Building as among the most endangered historic buildings in the city. Georgia State University planned to demolish the building as part of a grant-funded project to build a media center at the corner of Edgewood Avenue and Park Place. The plans call for a surface parking lot or green space where the Bell Building now stands. The irony of Georgia State U., which has a graduate program in historic preservation, wanting to demolish an historic building, wasn't lost on the people who started the "Save the Bell" movement. An online petition against demolition has gathered over 2,500 signatures. Preservationists have argued that there are plenty of parking decks nearby already. Since the building is state-owned it is outside of the city's purview on demolition. The structure is outside of the King National Historic District. The petition urges the Georgia State U. Foundation to consider adaptive reuse of this building which it has owned since 2007, with its great downtown location along the Atlanta Streetcar line and 68,000 square feet of usable space.

The Bell Building was constructed in 1907 and housed the Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company's switchboard. The three-story steel Neoclassical structure with a brick facade has simple detailing and large first-floor windows. In 1922, an addition was built onto the left of the original building. In 1968, Bell Telephone sold the structure to the Trust Company of Georgia who planned to build two skyscrapers. The second skyscraper was never built and the Bell Building was sold by the bank (now SunTrust) to Georgia State University. Today, the building's addition is in danger of being demolished by its owner, the Georgia State University Foundation, to create a parking lot or green space despite opposition from some local residents and preservationists.

Bell Building, Atlanta 

The English-American Building, also known as the Georgia Savings Bank Building and Flatiron Building, stood as Atlanta's second-ever skyscraper. The first skyscraper in the city was built by the Equitable Trust Company and was later demolished, leaving the English-American as the oldest remaining skyscraper in Atlanta. The English-American name comes from its original tenant, the English-American Loan &amp; Trust Building, whose officers included Rufus B. Bullock, who once served as a Georgia governor during Reconstruction. The state forced him out in 1876 for trying to enforce political rights and protection for African Americans. The English-American Loan and Trust Company built the skyscraper. Bradford Gilbert of New York City, a well-known and lauded nineteenth-century architect, designed the flatiron skyscraper in 1897. Eight years earlier, he designed New York City's first steel frame building, the Tower Building. By 1895, Gilbert maintained an office in Atlanta while acting as the supervising architect of the Cotton States and International Exposition. Also, while the New York City Flatiron building -- designed by the famed D.H. Burnham &amp; Company, enjoys considerable notoriety, the English-American flatiron-designed skyscraper emerged nearly four years before its New York City counterpart. Rufus B. Bullock served as president of the English-American Loan &amp; Trust Company, which points to the second chapter of his life in Atlanta, one for which he enjoyed success in the private business sector. The first chapter for Bullock, a northern-born businessman who had cooperated with the Confederacy, involved his stint as a Republican Governor (1868 - 71) during the Reconstruction, one that ended with his removal after enjoying the reputation as the "most hated man in the state." He ostensibly attempted to provide African-Americans with an abundance of rights; the Ku Klux Klan led a movement to force him out of office. But, he did recover well and not only worked for the trust company but served as president of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce and master of ceremonies at the Atlanta Cotton States and International Exposition in 1895. The English-American Building name lasted until 1910 when the building became known as the Empire Life Building. The name changed again in 1916 when the structure was known as the Flatiron Building. In 1920, the Georgia Savings Bank and Trust Company purchased the building and remained its owner for nearly half of a decade, and then it changed hands again, which has been its ultimate story over time. Today, the building is known as Flatiron City and is the home to numerous businesses -- many of which are associated with technology. Thus, by looking at the history of Atlanta's flatiron building, one can view several chapters of the city's history, from Reconstruction to the 21st Century.

Completed in 1897, Atlanta's Flatiron Building was designed by New York architect Bradford Gilbert. Gilbert was a former student of renowned architect Daniel Burnham, who designed New York's Flat Iron Building, which shared the unique wedge-shaped design and was constructed five years later. Atlanta's Flatiron Building was the second skyscraper built in Atlanta and stands as the oldest standing steel-framed skyscraper in the city.  Rufus Brown Bullock was one of the principal figures involved in the English-American Trust & Loan Company and had previously served as Georgia governor during the Reconstruction Era and sought better economic and political rights for African Americans. The KKK and other groups helped push him out of the state because he supported Reconstruction, but he returned years later and became a successful Atlanta businessman. 

The Flatiron Building (English-American Building) 

The 1914-built Healey Building stands as the final skyscraper from the Atlanta firm of Morgan and Dillon before the first World War. However, evidence points to the fact that W. T. Downing, a renowned Atlanta architect who served as an associated architect on the project, likely designed the building. The design also initially intended for there to be a second, twin tower.World War I and the death of builder, William T. Healey, in 1920 prevented the twin-tower design from coming to fruition. The two towers were to be joined by a low, connecting element containing a top-lighted rotunda. In place of a second tower stands a row of small structures intended for commercial and retail use. The Healy tower comprises of clustered piers that rise throughout the building's sixteen-story high exterior and provide the structure with its striking verticality. Meanwhile, the New-Gothic style gives the building lightness and clean lines, both on the interior and exterior. The financier of the building, Thomas G. Healey, started his working life in the brick-making business, before transitioning to a builder and contractor. He took those lessons and used it to make his fortune as a real estate developer. But, he also delved into the banking industry and proved to be a successful street railway entrepreneur. Lastly, he served as a city politician. His son, William, worked beside his father for many years before finally taking over the family business. William ultimately served as the builder of the Healy building before his death a few years after the completion of the tower. The building remained in the Healey family until 1972. A 1988 renovation followed by another one in 2001 included the conversion of the upper 14 floors to condominiums while the lower two stories serve galleries, professional offices, shops, and restaurants.

The sixteen-story Gothic Revival Healey Building opened its doors in 1914 and stands today as the last major skyscraper built in Atlanta during the pre-World War I construction boom. The second tower that was to connect to the first tower never came to fruition, mostly due to World War I. 

Healey Building

The W.D. Grant Building was completed in 1898 and stands as the earliest example of the Chicago-School inspired cage-steel-frame construction in Atlanta. The building was also the first to occupy a full city block. The U-shaped plan also allowed for more window offices than the typical square buildings. The building symbolizes a decade of commercial construction that changed the character of the area from an architectural standpoint and demonstrated the commercial growth taking place in Atlanta. From the destruction of the city by Union forces in 1864, Atlanta grew to roughly 200,000 residents by 1920.Before the completion of the Grant Building, this land was home to an Episcopal church that was destroyed by the fires lit by General Sherman's troops when they captured the city in 1864. A two-story commercial structure arose on the property after the fire, which the Grant Building replaced. The Grant Building was constructed in a decade that saw the construction of numerous multi-story structures. These buildings replaced smaller offices as well as private homes and churches that had previously dotted the downtown area. This period also saw the downtown spread north of the older business district that was centered in what is now the south downtown neighborhoods of Atlanta. By the turn of the century, Atlanta enjoyed a genuine metropolitan appearance and functioned as a legitimate commercial center. Despite ties to modern architecture, the building's namesake also reflects nineteenth-century Southern U.S. history. W.D. Grant II was born in the late 1830s, the son of a prominent North Georgian, John T. Grant, who owned a plantation. John Grant's fortune came as a result of his work as an engineer and businessman after he founded a successful company that was involved in the construction of railroad lines. W.D. Grant studied law in school before joining the Confederate Army like his father. John where he attained the rank of colonel while his son W. D. became a captain. Thanks to generational wealth and connections, W.D. Grant established a business in Atlanta and became one of the city's first millionaires. Due to his role in contracts and finance, W. D. Grant attained a fortune that could have been as much as $6 million by the 1880s. Grant's prominence allowed him to hold the office of Exposition Vice President during the Atlanta Exposition of 1895. Grant's early wealth also allowed him to invest heavily in the city and finance several ambitious construction projects. Among these was the completion of the W.D. Grant Building, opening its doors three years before Grant died in 1901. The Prudential Life Insurance Company provided a loan to Grant to help finance the building leading to the building being known by the name of that company until 1910. The company occupied part of the building for its first few years. After the company moved locations, the building became known as the W.D. Grant Building in honor of the late Atlanta businessman. Today, the building stands as a reminder of those who rebuilt the city in the decades that followed the Civil War, and as a harbinger of a downtown marked by skyscrapers and commercial activity.

Completed in 1898, the W.D. Grant Building is one of the oldest steel buildings in Atlanta, representing a period of growth and change for the city following a period of slow recovery from the destruction of the Civil War. In the final decades of the 19th century, Atlanta grew into a metropolitan center with the core of commercial growth clustering around the first skyscrapers such as the W.D. Grant Building. Known originally as the Prudential Building, this structure was soon joined by other skyscrapers at the turn of the century. 

W.D. Grant Building

Construction of the Thornton Building, also known as 10 Pryor Street Building and 10 Park Place, occurred from 1930 to 1932. The building was one of the last commercial structures built before both the Great Depression and World War II all but ended commercial building activity in Atlanta. The building exemplifies the Ultra Modern style of architecture, a variation of the Art Deco, and exhibits straight forward lines and details.  Atlanta architect Anthony Ten Eyck Brown designed the Thornton building, one of many commercial and government projects he headed in the city and throughout the Southeast. Brown was born in Albany and was the son of a prominent architect. Brown studied at the Academy of Design in New York and then went on to work in Washington, D.C., New York, and Nashville before moving to Atlanta, where he worked as an architect from the early 1900s until he died in 1940. His best-known works include several city courthouses, Atlanta Municipal Market, and several schools.The Thorton building still features an elaborate entrance, adorned by marble and bronze details. However, the building's overall lack of ornate features speaks to the changes in building design inspired by the banking collapse and the Great Depression. The building's exterior appears efficient and modern, and the interior reflects this with advances that included movable interior walls to accommodate changing office needs, circulating ice water on each floor, and high-speed, gear-less elevators. The Thornton name reflects the owner of the land and its first owner, Albert E. Thornton (1885-1953), whose family was one of Atlanta's pioneer families. Albert had the building constructed on land owned by the Thornton family for several generations, replacing a block of buildings put there by Albert's grandfather during the 1870s.

The Thornton building, constructed from 1930 to 1932, is one of Atlanta's last commercial buildings erected before the slowdown caused by the Great Depression. The building is located on land that was owned by the Thornton family, who arrived in Atlanta during the 1870s. The structure included many modern features of its age, such as its movable office walls, gear-less elevators, and ice cold drinking water for each floor.  At the same time, the lack of ornate detailing that typified buildings constructed just a few years prior speaks to the ways that building designed changed following the financial crisis that shook the banking sector in 1929. In the 1930s, the Ultra Modern style of Art Deco architecture became the standard in the construction of federal and office buildings and featured efficient design with minimal ornamentation.  

Thornton Building (10 Pryor Street, 10 Park Place)

<div>An iconic landmark located in the heart of downtown at &nbsp;Five-Points, the famed intersection of Edgewood Avenue, Decatur, and Peachtree Streets. The site of the Olympia building dates back to the founding of &nbsp;Atlanta. It was the location of the city's first post office and general store built and operated by Atlanta pioneer and first postmaster George Washington Collier in the mid-1840s. Collier built several buildings on the site. During the 1920s, the Collier Building was a popular shopping destination in Five-Points. However, the rise of the automobile witnessed a decline of the pedestrian-oriented downtown.&nbsp; </div><div> </div><div>During the depression era, Frank Hawkins, founder of the Third National Bank, invested in the old Collier Building. The new building was named Olympia after Hawkins investments in Olympia Beach, Florida. The architectural firm of Ivey and Crook, two graduates of Georgia Tech, designed the two-story Art Deco structure in the modern style. The building reflects a transition from the revival style to the international style with a facade of minimal detailing. The Olympia building was completed in 1936.</div><div> </div><div>The Woodruff Foundation gifted the Olympia Building to the State for the Centennial Olympic in 1996. Recently, it began a major restoration to preserve the historic 1936 facade in 2015. The Olympia Building will reopen as a vintage Walgreens in 2016.&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div>

Built by famous Atlanta architects Ivey and Crook in the midst of the Great Depression, this pie-shaped building is best known for its iconic Coca-Cola sign. The building was donated to the city of Atlanta to help support their effort in bringing the Olympics to Atlanta in 1996. It went under restoration after many years listed as an endangered historic landmark and reopened in 2016. The building now stands where Atlanta’s first post office and general store once stood.

Olympia Building

The first version of what became Coca-Cola was sold at Jacobs' Pharmacy in 1886. The drink was invented by John Pemberton, a former Confederate officer. After being wounded in battle, he became addicted to the painkiller morphine. In attempting to cure his addiction, he experimented with other narcotics, including cocaine, at a time when this was not a controlled substance. While cocaine may or may not have been included in the version of the cola sold here, kola nuts were a core ingredient, along with sugar and the significant amounts of caffeine the kola nuts contained. Today, kola nuts are not directly used in the production of the drink, but the caffeine and the sugar still post health problems if consumed in large quantities. The company also now offers versions of the cola without sugar and caffeine.Joseph Jacobs, the owner of Jacobs' Pharmacy, studied under Dr. Crawford W. Long, the doctor who discovered Ether's Value in surgery. Jacobs received a degree from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1879. Despite the historical significance, the original building was demolished many years ago. The Coca-Cola company requested permission to erect this marker, to designate the importance of the location's history in 2016. Asa G. Candler signed on as an investor in one-third of the Coca-Cola brand in 1887 and later persuaded Pemberton to sell the formula for $2300. Candler sold the brand to a group of investors in 1919, a date that could be considered the start of the modern Coca-Cola company.

Jacobs' Pharmacy was the first establishment to serve the now famous beverage, Coca-Cola, on May 8, 1886. Jacobs' acquired the building in 1884 and sold his interest in Coca-Cola to Asa Candler, who later took control of the company from the drink's inventor, John Pemberton. The building has long since been demolished, but this historical marker, installed in 2016, represents the history of the pharmacy and its now-famous beverage. 

Jacobs' Pharmacy and Historical Marker for the First Coca-Cola Served

In March 1960, students from Atlanta's six historically Black colleges worked with Black leaders throughout the city and formed the Committee on Appeal for Human Rights (COAHR). The organization was led by Lonnie C. King and Julian Bond, who were college students at that time. The organization proposed waging a series of sit-ins, the same strategy that had been successful in Nashville and Greenboro. But this was Atlanta, the largest city in the South and a bastion of racial segregation.When the Presidents of the six Black colleges learned what their students were planning, they held a special meeting to discourage their students from taking direct action. The students prevailed and even secured limited support from the administrations of those institutions, despite the possibility that something as controversial as a sit-in might lead to mass arrests and reduced funding for their colleges.The students published "An Appeal for Human Rights" which denounced segregation as contrary to the principles of fairness and democracy. The Governor of Georgia branded the student's message as a "left wing statement... calculated to breed dissatisfaction, discontent, discord, and evil." He even speculated that Soviet spies or Communist radicals were behind the movement.  The first sit-ins began with ten simultaneous sit-ins on March 15, 1960. Police arrested 77 of the 200 students, but violence was minimal, and the organization started negotiations with the affected businesses. The negotiations proved unsuccessful, and the sit-ins continued for over a year. The Atlanta students also partnered with SNCC. Together the students and their supporters achieved limited success by 1961. Perhaps the biggest turning point of the 1960-1961 campaign to end segregation in Atlanta occurred when students began a sit-in at a handful of leading businesses. The most prominent of these businesses was the Magnolia Room at Rich's--the finest establishment in the largest department store and a symbol of the South. As Rich goes, so goes Atlanta, the students predicted. Meanwhile, Look magazine predicted, "as goes Atlanta, so goes the South."City police arrested over 50 students and other participants on October 19, 1960, the first day of the protest at the Magnolia. The protest secured national attention because the students had successfully persuaded Martin Luther King Jr. to participate. The arrest of King not only brought publicity; it swelled the size of future participants. In the next few days, 2000 protesters effectively shut 16 lunch counters down. With students refusing bail and straining the resources of city police, and with the demonstrations causing a significant reduction in business, owners and city leaders were looking for a way to end the sit-ins. On March 7, 1961, Martin Luther King Jr. joined white and Black leaders and negotiated a deal to end segregation at the downtown lunch counters the following year. Some students and participants were upset that the agreement did not require immediate desegregation. At the same time, segregation continued throughout the city and led to additional sit-ins throughout 1963. Many restaurants and lunch counters remained segregated until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed the practice.

The Magnolia Room was a highlight of Rich's Department Store as an Atlanta institution. Similar to all other white-owned downtown department stores in Atlanta, Rich's maintained a policy of racial discrimination. For example, African Americans could purchase items from the store, but they were not allowed to try on any of the clothing, use the white-only washrooms, or enjoy a table in the Magnolia Room. Because Rich's was an institution and the Magnolia Room was a powerful symbol of the color line, Atlanta's African American students made the Magnolia Room the center of their struggle for integration. In 1960 and 1961, hundreds of students participated in sit-ins throughout the city. The campaign ended with the integration of the city's lunch counters in the fall of 1961. During the year of protests, the Magnolia room became one of the central theaters of the protest movement after Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested during a sit-in at Rich's in October of 1960. This entry includes two videos related to King's address- a statement by King himself following his arrest and a remark from attorney Donald Howell speaking about King's arrest the following week. 

Sit-in at Rich's Magnolia Room, 1960-1961

The original depot rose to three stories on one end (for office space), which was topped by a cupola and also featured a second-story balcony. The Georgia Railroad was chartered in 1833 and completed a railroad line from August to what is now Atlanta in 1869 (Atlanta was first called Marthasville).<div> </div><div> </div>

The Georgia Railroad Freight Depot is one of the oldest buildings in downtown Atlanta. Construction of the facility was completed in April 1869 and the site quickly became one of the most important stops along the Georgia Railroad line. The depot was the tallest building in Atlanta at the time of its construction but was reduced to one story following a fire in 1935. The structure was renovated in 1981 by the Georgia Building Authority and opened for public use shortly thereafter. Much of the original brickwork and freight bays were preserved during the renovation. The depot can be rented for large gatherings such as weddings and other events.





Georgia Railroad Freight Depot

The church had a tumultuous beginning. Thirty-nine members of the Atlanta Presbyterian Church (the first Presbyterian church in the city) decided to split and form a new church. It is unclear exactly why but accounts state that there was some kind of serious intractable dispute that led those members to leave. After first holding services in the capitol building, the first church building was constructed in 1860. The Civil War and post-war period was difficult. Two of the church's pastors fought for the Confederacy and one of them was captured. When Union troops occupied the city, the Sunday School building was used as a slaughterhouse. After the war, the church became focused on enforcing individual morality. This rose to another level in 1877, when a "reign of terror" began, which entailed trials and public shaming of members who failed to follow strict rules against activities such as card playing, attending the theater, and dancing. One case was particularly infamous. The church put on trial a father who allowed dancing at his&nbsp;daughter's Christmas party. Thankfully, by 1890, the church returned to a less stringent focus, and began to emphasize its commitment to serving the needs of the community. In the coming decades, the church would start outreach programs, support labor strikes and the demand for fair wages and treatment, and call for racial equality. For example, in 1907 the church formed the Atlanta Union Mission, which provided food and shelter to the homeless (this still exists today), and in 1912, the&nbsp;Young Women’s Bible Class&nbsp;led the effort to establish dormitories for single female workers, who previously had to resort to prostitution to support themselves.&nbsp; In 1968 following the murder of Martin Luther King Jr., the church offered shelter and food to the thousands of people who came to King's funeral. Church leaders soon made a commitment to build bridges between the white and Black communities. Central Presbyterian continues its tradition of&nbsp;supporting social justice today.&nbsp;

Central Presbyterian Church has been an active and integral religious institution in Atlanta since its inception in 1858. The church building was erected in 1885 and designed by Edmund G. Lind, an English native who lived in Atlanta for ten years. Lind designed the building in the English Gothic style. The church is perhaps better known for its long-standing support to social and economic justice, a characteristic that has kept it at the forefront of pressing issues of the day, such as labor and civil rights. For these reasons, the church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.

Central Presbyterian Church

Located on the northwest corner of the Georgia State Capitol, the Replica of the Statue of Liberty is part of the Statue of Liberty Replicas series by the Boy Scouts of America. There are over 200 replicas in 39 states that were dedicated in the 1950s. The replica statues were erected to celebrate Scouting's theme on the 40th anniversary: "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty." Each statue is about 8 1/2 feet tall without its base, cased in sheet copper, and weighs about 290 pounds. The Replica of the Statue of Liberty in Atlanta is an exact replica of the Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island, New York. The original Statue of Liberty is copper-clad and was dedicated on October 28, 1886 after being given to the United States from France. The Statue of Liberty was sculpted by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi.

Dedicated by the Atlanta Council of the Boy Scouts of America in 1951, the Replica of the Statue of Liberty stands outside the Georgia State Capitol. The replica statue commemorates the 40th anniversary of the Boy Scouts and represents the motto, "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty." The statue is an 8 1/2 foot version of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, which welcomes visitors, immigrants, and Americans who are returning to the United States.

Replica of the Statue of Liberty

The "Expelled Because of Color" historical marker and statue is dedicated to the 33 African American state legislators who were elected and then forced to leave the Georgia House in 1868 because they were African American. There is also a dedication panel that was presented to the State of Georgia by the African American members of the Georgia General Assembly who served between 1963 and 1978. It was dedicated on February 16, 1978. The sculpture that accompanies the historical marker and dedication panel was created by John Riddle. Riddle said that the cinder block base symbolizes the building of Black political awareness. Enslavement, role in the Revolutionary War, the Black church, labor, and the right to vote are also components of "the Black Georgian's struggle from the slave ship to the State House."1 Prior to the election of 1868, white Democrats and some white Republicans argued that the Georgia Constitution did not guarantee the right for African Americans to hold positions in office. A clause that guaranteed the right was defeated. Some African American voters even voted against the clause because "had been assured by white leadership of the Republican Party that Blacks were eligible to hold office and that a special provision was unnecessary."2 In the April 1868 election, 25 African Americans were elected to the House and three more to the Senate. After Georgia was readmitted to the Union in June 1868, white Democrats wanted to exclude African Americans and replace them with their losing opponents. By September 1868, Democrats secured enough Republican support to pass a resolution that excluded African Americans from the House and the Senate. It was done on the grounds that African Americans were "ineligible" to serve under the Constitution. After African Americans were removed from office, Democrats gained control of the House. Republicans kept control of the Senate but sided with Democrats on issues surrounding race. In November 1868, Democrats run on a platform of white supremacy, which increased violence around Georgia. The Democrats used terror and intimidation, as well as the Ku Klux Klan. Georgia, in response, was placed under military supervision, and Congress did not seat Georgian representatives. African American legislators continued to lobby the federal government to reseat the legislators. The federal government ordered the Georgian government to restore the African American legislators' seats. It was not until 1870 that the seats were restored. Twenty-two Democrats who held public office before the war and were military officers under the Confederacy were disqualified. This meant that control of the House returned to Republicans. Thanks to federal intervention and the presence of the U.S. Army during this phase of Reconstruction, the legally-elected African American representatives eventually had their seats restored. It is worth noting that a significant number of African Americans also won local elections throughout the South from the late 1860s to the early 1870s until white supremacists once again secured political control during the final years of Reconstruction.

Dedicated in February 1978, the "Expelled Because of Color" historical marker and statue is dedicated to thirty-three African American legislators who were elected by the people of Georgia in 1868. Each of these men faced armed white mobs and were refused their seats and expelled from the Georgia state legislator by the previous and all-white state legislature. However, in 1870 and with the support of the U.S. Army, the election results of 1868 were upheld. The election of 1868 was the first to occur under the terms of the 14th Amendment which guaranteed suffrage to Black men. Between 1868 and the mid-1870s, Black men voted and won elections throughout Georgia and other Southern states. By the mid-1870s, however, armed white supremacists used violence and fraud to deny the vote to African Americans and the rest of the nation responded by withdrawing the U.S. Army and considering the experiment of interracial democracy a failure until the modern Civil Rights Movement. A dedication panel was presented to the State of Georgia by African American members of the Georgia General Assembly who served between 1963 and 1978. The historical marker and statue symbolizes Black political awareness from "the Black Georgian's struggle from the slave ship to the Senate House."

Downtown Atlanta Walking Tour- Peachtree Center to the State Capitol

Georgia Capitol and Museum

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information