While Katrina was devastating to many communities and cities, perhaps the most remembered and, at the time, most televised damage occurred in New Orleans. Due to the elevation of New Orleans being below sea level, the city relies on a system of federally built levees to protect it from flooding. The breach of important levees, including the 17th Streer Canal levee, the London Avenue Canal, and the Industrial Canal left about 80% of the city flooded.<br><br>Alrhough this horrific flooding was responsible for a number of deaths, remembering how other deaths occurred help us to understand the truly dire emergency situation that the storm created. Before midnight on August 28, the first deaths in New Orleans were reported. These were the deaths of three patients at a nursing home that likely died from dehydration while evacuating to Baton Rouge. Some evidence suggests that prisoners in the area were abandoned while guards searched for shelter. After the storm, many prisoners, numbering in the hundreds, we're officially recorded as "unaccounted for." Four bodies were found in the Convention Center. One of these bodies is believed to be the victim of a homicide. By October 23, 2005, the number of recovered bodies in the New Orleans area numbered over 700. Coroners had trouble identifying many of the dead due to the advanced decomposition of many of the bodies. This decomposition was mostly the result of staying in the sun and water for extended periods of time before they were recovered. The costliest hurricane in recorded history, Katrina cost $108 billion in damages. In addition to Louisiana and Mississippi, the hurricane also affected the Bahamas, South Florida, Alabama, the Florida Panhandle, and Cuba.<br><br>

Flooding or I-10/I-610/West End Blvd., surrounding areas of New Orleans and Metairie 

"The Great Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast" by Douglas Brinkley

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The memorial located on this site marked the tragedy that befell New Orleans on August 29, 2005. Hurricane Katrina severely damaged the Mississippi and Louisiana Gulf Coast and caused the deaths of over 1,100 people. This memorial acts as a grave marker to those who were not buried in marked graves by loved ones.

The New Orleans Katrina Memorial

This is an overview of the difficult history of New Orleans.  The tour will bring to the surface elements of the buried and hidden history of the city.  Virtual travelers will see sites of devastation during Hurricane Katrina and the federal flood.  Sites of the slave trade are identified.  White supremacy sites are marked as are sites of the struggle for civil rights and environmental justice.

Lee Circle functions today as a traffic circle on the popular St. Charles Avenue, but its original name was<i> Place de Tivoli</i>. &nbsp;Designed by surveyor and geographer Barthlemey Lafon in 1807, <i>Place de Tivoli</i> was originally a small, circular island surrounded by a canal. &nbsp;The circle, or <i>place</i>, was likely intended to be an amusement park with a carousel in the center. &nbsp;The location of <i>Place de Tivoli</i> marked it as the gateway between the older, downriver portions of the city and the newer, upriver sections. &nbsp;As such, it was a popular meeting place and for decades was a favorite spot on the Mardi Gras parade route. &nbsp;<br><br>After the Civil War, pro-Confederate groups across the South honored their veterans and the lost Southern cause with monuments and memorials, and New Orleans was no exception. &nbsp;The local Robert E. Lee Monument Society raised over $36,000 (nearly $700,000 today)&nbsp;in the early 1870s for the construction of a monument to Lee in the city. &nbsp;Dedicated in 1884, the monument consists of a 60-foot marble Doric columnn mounted on a massive granite base and&nbsp;topped with a 161/2 foot bronze statue of Robert E. Lee. &nbsp;After its dedication, <i>Place de Tivoli</i> was renamed Lee Circle. &nbsp;By the turn of the 20th century, several important buildings were located on the circle. &nbsp;These included the main branch of the New Orleans Public Library and the Jerusalem Hall.<br>

In 1884, the city of New Orleans dedicated a statue and renamed this traffic circle was in honor of Confederate general Robert E. Lee. Prior to this time, the area was known as Trivoli Square. The movement to create a monument and rename the area in honor of the former Confederate leader was spurred by the Robert E. Lee Monumental Association, a group of Southerners who worked to create monuments following Lee's death in 1870. In recent years, this and other monuments that honor Confederate leaders has become a source of controversy. After renewed debates in 2015, the city council and mayor ordered the removal of this and three other statues. 

This monument was removed on May 19, 2017, following the removal of three other New Orleans monuments: the Liberty Place monument, a statue of Jefferson Davis, and a statue of Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard. You can watch a video and read the full transcript of Mayor Mitch Landrieu's May 19 speech at the link below.

Lee Circle

<p>In the aftermath of the Civil War, the Republican Party began to win elections in the South owing to the temporary disenfranchisement of prominent Confederates and the fusion of newly-enfranchised African Americans with progressive Southern whites. Angered by the success of the Republican Party, a political organization that scarcely existed in Southern states prior to Reconstruction, angry whites under the auspices of the Ku Klux Klan and similar secret societies committed acts of terror against white Republicans and any African Americans.</p><p>The violence was repeated in the next two years, but so long as federal troops were present, the White League was forced to retreat and the democratically-elected government of Louisiana was restored. Following the Presidential election of 1876, however, national Republican leaders agreed to a compromise that included the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. The Republican Party won the next election, but without federal troops to enforce the results of that election, white paramilitary groups seized control of the state and installed members of the Democratic Party under the banner of "redeeming" the state from formerly enslaved people and white Yankees. </p><p>Demonstrating the ways that historical interpretations change over time, this monument was created in 1891 to honor the white supremacists who, after several years of violent attacks, forced the legally-elected Republican officials of Louisiana to flee for their lives. Reflecting the long history of white supremacy, New Orleans officials added an additional plaque honoring the Crescent City White League. </p><p>In response to the protests by African American residents, the city added a sign next to the monument in the 1970s that attempted to appease both the white defenders of the monument and African American voters who had just elected the city's first back mayor. The sign offered a statement defending the historical significance of the monument but distancing the modern city of New Orleans from the racist sentiment behind its construction. In 1981, the city government attempted to have the monument removed but backed down in the face of angry protest by white residents. </p><p>The monument stood at a prominent location on Canal Street until 1989, when nearby construction led to it being placed in storage. The monument was moved to its present location in 1993 and a slab of granite was placed over the inscription that had once praised the White League's efforts to "overthrow [the] carpetbag government" by force of arms and install a new government that "recognized white supremacy in the South and gave us our state." The monument also received a new plaque, created in a compromise, calling for honor and remembrance for "Americans on both sides of the conflict." </p>

<p>One of the most controversial monuments in the United States, this memorial was erected in 1891 to honor white supremacists who attempted to overthrow the government of Louisiana in 1874. The monument was moved and modified, and was the subject of decades of heated debate regarding its proper disposition. In April 2016, city officials called for the monument's removal. While a vast majority of New Orleans residents wanted the monument removed, the state legislature intervened and in a series of partisan votes, enacted measures that took the authority to remove monuments from city leaders. After two years of demands by residents, state legislators voted against further actions to block the city from removing the monument in early 2017. On April 24, 2017, (a date that a few states still celebrate as "Confederate Memorial Day") workers disassembled and removed the monument under the cover of darkness, protected against possible white supremacist violence by police snipers. Mayor Mitch Landrieu stated in a speech (in the video below), "We will no longer allow the Confederacy to literally be put on a pedestal." The controversy surrounding the monument reflects the violent event the monument was meant to commemorate. Following the victory of a Republican ticket composed of Black and white candidates in the election of 1874, five thousand members of the Crescent City White League attempted to seize control of the state government by force. The attempted coup led to an armed confrontation between members of the racially-diverse police force. Thanks to the presence of federal troops, the attempted coup failed. However, the Battle of Liberty Place continues to represent the most deadly attack on an American police force. While the interpretation of the battle has changed, it is important to note that this monument was created to honor the members of the White League. In the 1990s, the monument was altered to include a plaque that honors the fallen officers who attempted to preserve democracy. In 2015, a special commission established by the city council recommended the complete removal of this monument. Demonstrating the ways that political parties can change over time, modern-day Democrats are in favor of removing the monument while Republicans defend the structure as part of the state's heritage.</p>

Battle of Liberty Place Monument (1891-2017)

<p>The former hotel was one of over fifty places in the city of New Orleans where slaves were regularly bought and sold. Historians have documented the existence of these sites, yet as of November 2015, only one historic marker has been placed at any of these locations. Ironically, that marker, which is located across the street from the Omi Hotel at&nbsp;Maspero’s Restaurant, is incorrect. The sign claims that Maspero's Exchange was located across the street from the Omni Hotel when the slave exchange operated at the St. Louis Hotel.&nbsp;</p><p>There are numerous other sites throughout the city where the slave trade occurred. Some of these places are now home to public buildings while others, such as a slave pen located at Chartres&nbsp;Street and Esplanade Avenue, are the location of private homes. Historians are working to document the location of these slave pens and markets, but few city leaders have been willing to support the creation of historic markers.&nbsp;</p>

Prior to the completion of the Omni Hotel in the 1950s, this was the site of the St. Louis Hotel. During the antebellum period, the St. Louis Hotel was one of over fifty places where slaves were bought and sold. 

St. Louis Hotel and the New Orleans Slave Trade

<div>The Cabildo's main hall, the Sala Capitular, or "Meeting Room," was originally utilized as a courtroom. The Spanish used the courtroom from 1799-1803. &nbsp;From 1803-1812 it was the location of the Louisiana territorial superior court. &nbsp;It was the home of the Louisiana Supreme Court from 1868-1910. &nbsp;Thus, the&nbsp;Sala Capitular was the site of several landmark legal cases, including<i> Plessy v. Ferguson</i>.</div><div><br></div><div>By 1895, the Cabildo&nbsp;was in a state of decay and proposed for demolition. &nbsp;Artist William Woodward led a successful campaign to have the historic building preserved and restored.</div><div><br></div><div>In 1911 the Cabildo became the home of the Louisiana State Museum. The museum features an extensive exhibit of the region's indigenous, colonial, and urban history. &nbsp;of Special artifacts include Napoleon Bonaparte's death mask of Napoleon Bonaparte and a self portrait of Julien Hudson, a free man of color and artist in the 1800s.<br><br>*Further history on The Cabildo:<br><br><div>The original Cabildo was destroyed in the Great New Orleans Fire (1788). The Cabildo was rebuilt between 1795–99 as the home of the Spanish municipal government in New Orleans, and the third floor with mansard roof was later added, in French style. The building took its name from the governing body who met there — the "Illustrious Cabildo," or city council. The Cabildo was the site of the Louisiana Purchase transfer ceremonies late in 1803, and continued to be used by the New Orleans city council until the mid-1850s.</div><div><br></div><div>The building's main hall, the Sala Capitular ("Meeting Room"), was originally utilized as a courtroom. The Spanish used the courtroom from 1799–1803, and from 1803–1812 it was used by the Louisiana territorial superior court. After the American Civil War, it was the home of the Louisiana Supreme Court from 1868–1910. The Sala Capitular was the site of several landmark court cases, including Plessy v. Ferguson.</div><div><br></div><div>In 1895 it was in a state of decay and proposed for demolition; artist William Woodward led a successful campaign to have the historic building preserved and restored. In 1911 the Cabildo became the home of the Louisiana State Museum. The museum displays exhibits about the history of Louisiana from its settlement up through the Reconstruction Era, and about the heritage of the ethnic groups who have lived in the state.<br><p>The Cabildo was extensively damaged by a fire on May 11, 1988, which destroyed the cupola and the entire third floor,&nbsp;but it was restored and reopened to the public in 1994.&nbsp;In 2005, the Cabildo survived&nbsp;Hurricane Katrina, the eye of which passed 30 miles east of downtown, with relatively minor damage.</p><p>Days after Hurricane Katrina, the Louisiana State Police used the business offices of the Cabildo to set up what was called Troop N. The "N" was a designate for New Orleans. From the Cabildo, Louisiana State Troopers patrolled the streets of the city along with other state police agencies from&nbsp;New Mexico&nbsp;and&nbsp;New York.</p></div><div><br></div><br><br><br></div>

The monumental Cabildo building located today on the historic Jackson Square was constructed between 1795 and 1799.  The original Cabildo building was destroyed in the great fire of 1788, along with over 70% of the cities buildings.  The Cabildo was the seat of the Spanish colonial government.  The word "cabildo" means "city council" in Spanish. This building was the site of the official Louisiana Purchase transfer ceremonies in 1803.  It functioned as the seat of the New Orleans city council until the mid-1850s.  Later, the "Sala Capitular" room was used the Louisiana Supreme Court and became the site of several landmark cases.  Today, the Cabildo hosts the Louisiana State Museum's extensive colonial Louisiana and New Orleans history exhibit.

The Cabildo

<p>On June 7, 1892, a 30-year-old African-American man named
Homer Plessy purchased a ticket and proceeded to board a segregated East
Louisiana Railroad passenger train car at Press and Royal Streets in New
Orleans. Rather than sitting in the designated “colored” section, Plessy in a
section on the rail car designated to seat whites only. After a planned altercation
with the train conductor, Plessy refused to give up his seat and move to the
colored only car. The train was stopped and he was arrested immediately by a
private detective hired for the planned cause. Plessy was arrested for breaking
Louisiana's Separate Car Act of 1890 which required the segregation of rail
passengers traveling on intrastate railroads. </p>

<p>The question the Supreme Court of the United States faced in
1896 was this: ‘Is Louisiana's law mandating racial segregation on its trains
an unconstitutional infringement on both the privileges and immunities and the
equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment?’ In a seven to one
decision, the court found that the Louisiana state law to be within
constitutional boundaries. The justices based their decision on the
separate-but-equal doctrine, that separate facilities for Blacks and whites
satisfied the Fourteenth Amendment so long as they were equal. (A doctrine that
would not be overturned until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.)
Interestingly enough, the exact phrase, "separate but equal" was not
part of the opinion. However, Justice Brown conceded that the while 14th
amendment intended to establish absolute equality for the races before the law,
that "in the nature of things it could not have been intended to abolish
distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from
political equality, or a commingling of the two races unsatisfactory to
either." This ruling goes as far to state segregation as not in itself
constituting as unlawful discrimination. </p>

<p>This case sanctioned segregation in public accommodations
throughout the country. It was not until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954
when this doctrine was overturned on the grounds that “separate but equal is
inherently unequal”, especially in the context of public education.</p>

On June 7, 1892, a 30-year-old African-American man named Homer Plessy purchased a ticket and proceeded to board a segregated East Louisiana Railroad passenger train car at Press and Royal Streets in New Orleans. Rather than sitting in the designated “colored” section, Plessy in a section on the rail car designated to seat whites only. After a planned altercation with the train conductor, Plessy refused to give up his seat and move to the colored only car. The train was stopped and he was arrested immediately by a private detective hired for the planned cause. Plessy was arrested for breaking Louisiana's Separate Car Act of 1890 which required the segregation of rail passengers traveling on intrastate railroads. 

Plessy vs. Ferguson Historical Marker

In the&nbsp;spring of 1960, Ruby Bridges was one of six African-American children in New Orleans to pass the test that determined whether or not the Black children would go to the all-white school. However, two students decided to stay at their old school, and three were transferred to Mcdonogh No. 19. Ruby was the only one assigned to William Frantz. Her father was initially reluctant, but her mother felt strongly that the move was needed not only to give her own daughter a better education, but to "take this step forward ... for all African-American children." Her mother finally convinced her father to let her go to the school.1<br><br>The court-ordered first day of integrated schools in New Orleans, November 14, 1960, was commemorated by Norman Rockwell in the painting The Problem We All Live With. As Bridges describes it, "Driving up I could see the crowd, but living in New Orleans, I actually thought it was Mardi Gras. There was a large crowd of people outside of the school. They were throwing things and shouting, and that sort of goes on in New Orleans at Mardi Gras."2&nbsp;Former United States Deputy Marshal Charles Burks later recalled, "She showed a lot of courage. She never cried. She didn't whimper. She just marched along like a little soldier, and we're all very very proud of her."3<br><br>In 2005 New Orleans Public Schools was considering closing Frantz. Hurricane Katrina, which occurred that year, damaged the building. After it was restored, it began hosting the charter school Akili. &nbsp;<br>

William Frantz Elementary School is an American elementary school, that long with McDonogh No. 19 Elementary School, was involved in the New Orleans school desegregation crisis during 1960.

William Frantz Elementary School was one of the first all-white elementary schools in the Deep South to be integrated when Ruby Bridges became the first African-American student to attend the school. In 1960, when Bridges was six years old, her parents responded to a request from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and volunteered her to participate in the integration of the New Orleans school system.

In 2014, a statue of Bridges was unveiled in the courtyard of William Frantz Elementary School.

Difficult History in New Orleans

The New Orleans Katrina Memorial

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