Continental forces, led by Francis Marion and "Light Horse" Harry Lee, arrived at the fort on April 15, 1781 and laid siege for eight days. Initial attempts to capture the fort failed as the fort's walls were quite&nbsp;high and the Continentals did not have any artillery. However, they decided to build a tower taller than the fort from which they could fire inside. They managed to build it without detection&nbsp;in one night. At dawn the Continentals attacked;&nbsp;the combination of the fire from above and an attack on the ground&nbsp;forced the British to surrender. The Americans seized much needed supplies. Fort Watson was part of a series of British outposts in the South Carolina's backcountry and once the British lost&nbsp;control of it, it was impossible to resupply and communicate with the others.

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Located within Santee National Wildlife Refuge, Santee Indian Mound was likely built between 1200 and 1500 A.D. and is the easternmost example of the Mississippian native culture, of which the Santee people were a subgroup. It probably served as a burial mound or temple (or perhaps both). During the American Revolutionary War, the British built a fort, named Fort Watson, atop the mound as it provided an excellent vantage point from which to monitor Lake Marion. American forces eventually captured the fort in 1781, forcing the British to eventually abandon their attempt to take hold of the South Carolina backcountry. The mound was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Nothing remains of the fort.

Santee Indian Mound and Fort Watson

An illustrative survey of Native American mounds across the eastern half of the United States. While we don't think many people will be able to physically take this tour, it shows the staggering geographical reach of the Woodland Indian culture and the rough footprint of the mysterious mounds they left behind. Visit the South Charleston Interpretive Center to learn more!

Mounds of the Woodland Indians

In Kanawha River Valley in South Charleston, West
Virginia, is the second largest Native American Burial Mound in the state.
Second only to the Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, West Virginia, the Criel
Mound stands 33 feet tall and around 157 feet in diameter&nbsp;in the middle of the town. The mound gets its name
from the Criel family who used to own the land where the mound is located.
Archaeologists have determined that at one time the mound was part of a complex
of several miles of earthworks and other mounds. However, over time these have
been destroyed by the construction of buildings, roads, railways, etc… It is
believed that the mound was constructed by Native Americans living in the
Kanawha Valley between 1000 and 200 B.C. Archaeologists call these Native
Americans the Adena Culture.

It is
important to note that “Adena” is not the name that these prehistoric Native
American called themselves. It is only the term by which archaeologists refer
to them based on their material remains and cultural practices. The name
“Adena” comes from the estate of Governor Thomas Worthington in Chillicothe,
Ohio. On his estate there was a large mound which was one of the first Adena
mounds to be excavated. It is very likely that we will never know what these
peoples truly called themselves.

The Adena
culture thrived in Southern Ohio, Western West Virginia, and Kentucky from 800
B.C. to around 1000 A.D. The predecessors and ancestors of the Adena peoples
(known as the Archaic Culture) were highly mobile hunter-gatherers who
subsisted primarily on hunting wild animals and finding wild plants to eat.
They would travel in relatively small groups and live in temporary campsites
throughout the year. However, around 800 B.C. these peoples began to become
less mobile and created new technologies. Around this time is when scientists
begin to refer to the prehistoric Native Americans of the area as the Adena
Culture. The fact that they were the first people in the region to settle in
small villages,&nbsp; cultivate crops, make pottery, establish trade over long
distances with other Native Americans, and they began creating mounds and other
earthworks to bury their dead and use for ceremonies is what differentiates the
Adena Culture from their ancestors.

It is believed
that the reason the Adena peoples gave up their highly mobile hunting and
gathering lifestyle is because they learned how to farm and they began creating
pottery. Adena peoples lived in small villages near their gardens and
cultivated a variety of native plants, including squash, sunflower, sumpweed,
goosefoot, knotweed, and maygrass. They used the pottery vessels they made to
cook these crops and also to store crops for future use. Having a stable food
source nearby and the ability to store and save food made it possible for the
Adena to stay in one place for longer periods of time.

After becoming more sedentary, the Adena
began building mounds and earthworks near their villages. These monuments
ranged from small conical burial mounds to large and elaborate geometric
earthworks which were used for special rituals and ceremonies. As stated
earlier, the Criel Mound was once part of a larger system of other mounds and
earthworks in the area. 

The Criel mound has been extensively
studied by professional archaeologists over the course of many years. It was
first investigated by Col. P. W. Norris working with the Smithsonian
Institution in 1883. He excavated a 12 foot wide shaft from the top of the
mound to the ground surface. In the first three and four feet he encountered
human burials. However, the artifacts he found associated with the burials
proved that these particular individuals were not Adena, but likely buried in
the top of the mound much later by a different group of Native Americans. He
continued excavation and at 31 feet found the original burial chamber of the
mound. The skeletal remains of 11 individuals were found, 10 of which were
surrounding a central individual. They were all laid on a bark platform that
had been covered with ashes. It is likely that the central individual was one
of great importance to the Adena people and that the other 10 individuals were
buried around him at the same time he was interned. Archaeologists found shell
beads and copper remains of a headdress around the head of the central individual.


&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In
1970, the mound was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in order
to protect this cultural landmark for future generations. Today the mound is
part of a small park in the center of South Charleston. Visitors can see the
mound, read informational displays about the mound and the Adena culture, and
even walk a paved pathway to the very top of the mound. Also, Only a block away from the Mound on D Street is <a target="_blank" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.theclio.com/web/entry?id=45655">the South Charleston Interpretive Center</a>, which offers wide variety of artifacts and information on the Mound and the Adena culture.

In South Charleston, West Virginia is the second largest Native American burial mound in the state. The mound stands 33 feet tall and 157 feet in diameter in the center of a small park in the city. The mound was built by the Adena Culture sometime between 1000 and 200 B.C. Once a part of a more elaborate earthwork complex, the mound was excavated in 1883 by Col. P. W. Norris working for the Smithsonian Institution. Norris excavated numerous burials within the mound including the main burial chamber in which were buried 11 individuals. Today the mound is situated in a small park where visitors can see the mound and read more about it and the Adena peoples who constructed it. 

Criel Burial Mound

Shawnee Reservation Mound, also known as the Institute Fairgrounds Mound and the Poorhouse Mound, is located in Shawnee Regional Park in Dunbar, West Virginia.&nbsp; This mound today is about 20’ high and 80’ in basal diameter, but was originally 25’ high and greater than 80’ in diameter. The Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of Ethnology partially excavated the mound in the 1880s, at which time they uncovered three burials or cremations. The burial mound, one of the few that remain in the Kanawha Valley,&nbsp;dates back to the Adena period. It was built after 500 B.C.&nbsp;<div>About three feet from the top of the mound, known as the Poorhouse Mound or Shawnee Reservation Mound, were the remains of two people, one over the other and facing each another, according to the report. Ten feet down from the top of the mound were two large skeletons in a sitting position with their legs interlocked at the knees, according to Spencer’s report. Between the people was a hollowed-out sandstone slab filled with white ashes containing burned bone fragments. One of the skeletons wore copper bracelets. </div>Excavations made&nbsp;in the&nbsp;Dunbar mound revealed it to be a double storied structure. The&nbsp;exploration&nbsp;was made by first sinking a vertical shaft through the&nbsp;center&nbsp;of the mound, down to and slightly below the original surface&nbsp;of&nbsp;the ground. This mound was about as high as a modern three-story house. Within the mound were&nbsp;found&nbsp;successive layers of skeletons, some of them&nbsp;sepulcheredin a&nbsp;stone&nbsp;vault, and those nearer the bottom in a large wooden vault. Some of the beams of the latter were of walnut, and were 12 inches in diameter. <div>This is one of three mounds that remain of the once existing Adena mound and earthworks complex that centered in the Charleston-Dunbar area.The Adena culture&nbsp;was a Pre-Columbian Native American&nbsp;culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period.&nbsp;The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system.</div>The mound has been&nbsp;mostly undisturbed since the partial excavation in the 1880s, and is located directly beside the Shawnee Park clubhouse. A&nbsp;short knee&nbsp;wall was erected around the base of the mound in the late 20th century. In 2018, a multi-sports complex is in very close proximity to the mound, which makes its future preservation of utmost importance. Shawnee Mound is an important cultural artifact and one of only a few burial mounds that survive in the area today.

The Shawnee Reservation Mound, also known as the Institute Fairgrounds Mound and the Poorhouse Mound, is a burial mound that was built by the Hopewell tribes that inhabited this area for centuries prior to the arrival of Europeans. The mound is located in Shawnee Regional Park in Dunbar, West Virginia. The Smithsonian Institution excavated the mound in 1884 and archaeologists believe that it was built by the area Hopewellian peoples about 1500 to 2000 years ago. 

Shawnee Reservation Mound 

This Adena mound is located in the heart of Camden Park, a small
amusement park just outside of Huntington, West Virginia,&nbsp;near the junction of Twelve Pole&nbsp;Creek and the Ohio River.&nbsp;is the third largest
Native American mound in the state of West Virginia. The mound has never been excavated, but it is believed to have been 
built by the Adena Culture which flourished in the area between 800 B.C. to
around 100 A.D. Over 424 Adena mounds have been formally documented in West Virginia
and it is likely hundreds more had existed in the past. Historical and
archaeological studies show that many other mounds used to exist on the banks
of the Ohio River near the Camden Park mound, but over time have been
destroyed by the creation of roads, buildings, and railways.

It is important to note that “Adena” is
not the name that these prehistoric Native American called themselves. It is
only the term by which archaeologists refer to them based on their material
remains and cultural practices. The name “Adena” comes from the estate of
Governor Thomas Worthington in Chillicothe, Ohio. On his estate there was a
large mound which was one of the first Adena mounds to be excavated. It is very
likely that we will never know what these peoples truly called themselves.

The
Adena culture thrived in Southern Ohio, Western West Virginia, and Kentucky
from 800 B.C. to around 1000 A.D. The predecessors and ancestors of the Adena
peoples (known as the Archaic Culture) were highly mobile hunter-gatherers who
subsisted primarily on hunting wild animals and finding wild plants to eat.
They would travel in relatively small groups and live in temporary campsites
throughout the year. However, around 800 B.C. these peoples began to become
less mobile and created new technologies. Around this time is when scientists
begin to refer to the prehistoric Native Americans of the area as the Adena
Culture. They were the first people in the region to settle in
small villages,&nbsp;cultivate crops, make pottery, establish trade over long
distances with other Native Americans, and&nbsp;create mounds and other
earthworks to bury their dead and use for ceremonies.

It is
believed that the reason the Adena peoples gave up their highly mobile hunting
and gathering lifestyle is because they learned how to farm and create pottery. Adena peoples lived in small villages near their gardens and
cultivated a variety of native plants, including squash, sunflower, sumpweed,
goosefoot, knotweed, and maygrass. They used the pottery vessels they made to
cook these crops and also to store crops for future use. Having a stable food
source nearby and the ability to store and save food made it possible for the
Adena to stay in one place for longer periods of time.

After
becoming more sedentary, the Adena began building mounds and earthworks near
their villages. These monuments ranged from small conical&nbsp;shapes to large and
elaborate geometric earthworks which were used for special rituals and
ceremonies. The Camden Park mound is much larger than most other Adena mounds.
There are several more documented mounds and earthworks in the area. A series
of six small Adena Mounds exist in the Central Park of Ashland, Kentucky.&nbsp;The second-largest Adena mound in the state, the South
Charleston Mound, is less than an hour's drive away. Further north in
Moundsville, West Virginia, is the Grave Creek Mound, the largest Adena Mound in the state.

On the banks of Twelve Pole Creek and the Ohio River near Huntington, West Virginia, is the third-largest Adena Native American mound in the state. It is uniquely located in the middle of a local amusement park named Camden Park. The mound is believed to have been constructed by the Adena Culture which flourished in the area between 800 B.C. to A.D. 100. It has never been scientifically excavated by professional archaeologists. 

Adena Mound at Camden Park

In the middle of Ashland Central Park, there are six conical shaped Native American burial mounds. The three to six foot tall mounds are arranged in a slightly curved line running northwest to southeast. They average fifteen feet in diameter. The mounds were first documented by well-known Kentucky archaeologists William S. Webb and W.D. Funkhouser in 1932. These mounds were created by a civilization of prehistoric Native Americans known as the Adena Culture.

It is important to note that “Adena” is not the name that these prehistoric Native American called themselves. It is only the term by which archaeologists refer to them based on their material remains and cultural practices. The name “Adena” comes from the estate of Governor Thomas Worthington in Chillicothe, Ohio. On his estate, there was a large mound that was one of the first Adena mounds to be excavated. It is very likely that we will never know what these peoples truly called themselves.

The Adena culture thrived in Southern Ohio, Western West Virginia, and Kentucky from 800 B.C. to around 1000 A.D. The predecessors and ancestors of the Adena peoples, known as the Archaic Culture, were highly mobile hunter-gatherers who subsisted primarily on hunting wild animals and finding plants to eat. They would travel in relatively small groups and live in temporary campsites throughout the year. However, around 800 B.C., these peoples began to become less mobile and created new technologies. Scientists begin to refer this time as the beginning of the Adena Culture. The fact that they were the first people in the region to settle in small villages, cultivate crops, make pottery, establish trade over long distances with other Native Americans, and began creating mounds and other earthworks to bury their dead and use for ceremonies is what differentiates the Adena Culture from their ancestors.

It is believed that the reason the Adena peoples gave up their highly mobile hunting and gathering lifestyle is that they learned how to farm, and they began creating pottery. Adena peoples lived in small villages near their gardens and cultivated a variety of native plants, including squash, sunflower, sumpweed, goosefoot, knotweed, and maygrass. They used the pottery vessels they made to cook these crops and also to store them for future use. Having a stable food source nearby and the ability to store and save food made it possible for the Adena to stay in one place for longer periods of time.

After becoming more sedentary, the Adena began building mounds and earthworks near their villages. These monuments ranged from small conical burial mounds (like the mounds in Ashland's Central Park) to large and elaborate geometric earthworks, which were used for special rituals and ceremonies. There are several more documented mounds and earthworks near Ashland; one of most well-known is the large mound at Candem Park, just outside of Huntington, West Virginia. Hundreds of other Adena mounds and earthworks have been documented over a large geographical region.

In 1974 the mounds in Ashland Central Park were placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today, a historical marker is located at the site. The mounds are open to the public at all hours. There is a small chain fence surrounding the mounds and visitors are asked to please be respectful and do not climb on the mounds.&nbsp;

In Ashland Central Park, there is a group of six prehistoric Native American burial mounds. Ranging from four to six feet tall, the mounds are arranged in a slightly curved line. They were first documented in 1932. The mounds were created by a group of prehistoric Native American people named the Adena Culture. The Adena Culture, commonly called "the mound-builders", thrived in the region from 800 B.C. to around 100 A.D. They lived in small villages, grew crops, hunted, made pottery, traded goods with other Native Americans, and built sometimes large and intricate mounds and earthworks. 

Adena Mounds at Ashland Central Park

The May Moore Mound is the third-largest Indian mound in West Virginia. The mound is representative of the way of life for early Native Americans who lived during an era known by scholars as the Adena Culture, a label that describes the life and culture of organized tribes who lived in this region 10,000 years ago. The mound appears to have been cut into-likely by early farmers, but is still one of the few remaining Adena mounds that has been left relatively undisturbed

May Moore Mound 

Hopewell culture was not exclusive to one tribe or society, but made for many tribes. They were all connected via a network of trade routes around their land. These Native Americans lived in the time of the Middle Woodland Era that lasted from 200 BCE-500 CE. This network they shared was known as the Hopewell exchange system that ran from Lake Ontario through to the Crystal River Indian Mounds in what would be later known as Florida. These tribes were spread throughout the soon-to-be-discovered land of America gathering materials from all sources.They had a system of social stratification that helped grow stability and their populations. The Hopewell people had leaders, but they did not rule to the extent that they had slaves or armies to command. Some historians and scholars say that leaders were chosen based on persuasion concerning certain issues like trade and religion. Basically, whoever had the better persuasion and ideas got to be leader. The process would later lead to the creation of chiefdom, where senior members of tribes would take over as leaders based on seniority and kinship.There are many earthworks left behind by Hopewell culture in a variety of different shapes. There are squares, circles, and many other geometrical formations. They also had many mounds throughout Ohio and this is where they would do their most work. During the 1840s, archeologists Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis collected a mass inventory of Mound artifacts that were brought back to Europe for display. Also, the United States Army established Camp Sherman on these mounds during World War I. The Ohio Historical Society conducted a archeological dig and reconstructed some of the mounds from 1920-1923. President Warren G. Harding made the declaration that these mounds would be the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park.The national park is owned and operated under the National Park Service with some help from the Ohio Historical Society. There are large mounds and earthworks contained within the park. This helps visitors understand the range of networks and the culture that the Hopewell people indulged in. There is history about their early residential life and their politics located in a small museum. There’s also a visitor center that shows a historical film depicting Hopewell culture, a bookstore, and where guided tours can take place.

Established on March 2, 1923, The Hopewell Culture National Historical Park preserves Hopewell culture and artifacts. Hopewell culture is set back to the times where pre-columbian Native Americans flourished and lived near the rivers. It was not exclusive to one tribe or society, but a culture that lasted through many generations of Native Americans. This park was created to help keep the history of Hopewell culture alive and is managed by the National Park Service.

Hopewell Culture National Historical Park

The colonial mound was called Marie Antoinette Square until 1791; it was then designated as Mound Square. Its perpendicular altitude is 30 feet, and its base is a circle, 375 feet in circumference. Back then, it was surrounded by a moat 15 feet wide and 4 feet deep. It was also defended by a parapet 20 feet thick and 585 feet in circumference. The Great Mound that is the center of this cemetery is referred to as Conus. It is part of an Ohio Hopewell complex that is believed to have been built&nbsp;between 100 BCE and 500 CE. There are several other mounds that are part of the complex. <div> </div><div>The city of Marietta was founded in 1788 by members of the Ohio Company of Associates like Rufus Putnam. Many were Revolutionary War Veterans and officers, most likely high-ranking. Founders like Rufus Putnam wanted to protect the Cronus, so they established a cemetery to protect it. In order to preserve the mound, the founders of Marietta decided to lease it to General Rufus Putnam for twelve years under certain conditions. The whole square was to be surrounded by mulberry trees with an elm at each corner. The base of the mound was to be encircled with weeping willows, with evergreens on the mound. The circular parapet outside of the ditch was to be surrounded by trees, all within the square to remain undisturbed by the plow and seeded down to grass. Also, the whole area had to be enclosed with a post and rail fence. </div> There are thirty Revolutionary War soldiers buried in the cemetery, including eighteen officers (five Captains, three Majors, five Colonels, four Generals, and a Commodore). Other famous and notable figures are buried in the Mound Cemetery include Rufus Putnam, who fought in the French and Indian War and then was a General of the United States from 1796 to 1803. He later became a delegate to the Ohio Constitutional Convention. Return Jonathan Meigs spent his life in democratic politics in Ohio. He served as a Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court, Federal Judge, United States Senator from Ohio, and the fourth Governor of the State of Ohio. Abraham Whipple was the man who fired the first shot at the British on the water.&nbsp;He was the twelfth commissioned officer in the US Navy. He was also a founder of Marietta.&nbsp;William Augustus Whittlesey was a member of the Ohio Legislature and then a United States Representative to Congress from Ohio's 13th district. Archaeologists from the Cleveland Museum of Natural History excavated a section of the Capitolium mound in 1990. They determined that the mound was in fact constructed by peoples of the Hopewell Culture. Here are other Revolutionary War soldiers that were buried at the Mound Cemetery: <ul><li>Col. Robert Taylor,&nbsp;First Burial Here</li><li>Gen. Joseph Buel</li><li>Maj. Ezra Putnam</li><li>Andrew McAllister</li><li>Ephraim Foster</li><li>Gershom Flagg</li><li>John Holt</li><li>Surgeon Jabez True</li><li>Griffin Greene, Sr., Quartermaster</li><li>Col. Ebnezer Sproat</li><li>Col. William Stacey, Sr.</li><li>Gen. Benjamin Tupper</li><li>Maj. Anselm Tupper</li><li>Maj. Joseph Lincoln&nbsp;</li><li>Capt. Nathaniel Saltonstall</li><li>Nathaniel Dodge</li><li>Col. Enoch Sheperd</li><li>Jeremiah Thomas</li><li>Samuel Hidreth, Sr.&nbsp;</li><li>Judge Dudley Woodbridge</li><li>Sala Bosworth</li><li>Levi Lankton</li><li>Col. Ichabod Nye</li><li>Ephraim Emerson</li><li>Capt. Josiah Munro</li><li>John Green</li><li>James Hatch</li><li>Capt. Joseph Rogers</li><li>Matthew Kerr</li><li>Capt. William Moulton, Jr.</li><li>Nathan Evans</li><li>Gen. Joseph Willcox</li><li>Simeon Goodwin</li></ul>

Marietta founder Rufus Putnam wanted to protect a mound, called the Cronus, in town that had been constructed by people of the Hopewell culture. To do so, he suggested a cemetery be built around it. The cemetery became known as the Mound Cemetery starting in 1791. Many Ohio officials and Revolutionary War veterans were buried in the cemetery.


Mound Cemetery

The first European colonist to "discover" Grave Creek Mound was Joseph Tomlinson who noticed it while hunting in 1772. Jesse Tomlinson and Thomas Biggs, who were not archaeologists, tunneled into the mound in 1838 in search of buried treasures. When Tomlinson and Biggs dug two tunnels and a vertical shaft into the mound they uncovered two burial chambers. The men enlarged the lower burial chamber and opened it as a museum charging .25 cents admission. In 1909, West Virginia purchased the mound and wardens of the West Virginia Penitentiary used inmates to maintain the mound until the State Parks took over operation of the site in 1967. The first scientific excavation of the area was conducted by Dr. E. Thomas Hemmings of the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey in 1975; Hemmings found evidence of a ditch encircling the mound.  The city of Moundsville derives its name from the Adena burial mounds once located on Grave Creek Flats. Grave Creek Mound was the largest and is over 2,000 years old. Approximately 57,000 tons of earth had to be transported by baskets manually to construct it. Core samples taken during Hemmings' 1976 excavation provided evidence the mound was created between 250-150 B.C. Early estimates often place the height of the mound at about 70 feet before the 1838 tunneling. The mound was originally encircled by a 40-foot wide ditch. It was approximately 5-feet wide and did not hold water. Instead, it set the mound apart from the surrounding landscape. Access across the ditch as possible by an earthen causeway that interrupted the enclosure. The ditch slowly silted in and was finally completely filled in 1838 by dumping soil excavated from the tunnels and shaft into it. .  The 1838 excavation discovered two human skeletons in the lower burial chamber and a third individual in the upper chamber. Artifacts included mica, gorgets, copper bracelets and a large number of shell beads. In addition to the Adena ornaments and remains purportedly found in the inside of the mound, the upper vault contained a small flat sandstone engraved with alphabetical characters. Authenticity of the stone and the meaning of its inscription became a topic of controversy. The stone has never been authenticated and has been disputed by most professional archaeologists and linguists. Around 100 B.C. some Adena populations began to transform and probably became the Hopewell Culture, Other mounds that existed in the area either no longer exist (flattened in the nineteenth century during urban development, looting, and plowing). Many that survive exist on private property. One smaller Adena mound available for public access is located in Glen Dale at the Cockayne Farmstead. The Delf Norona Museum, adjacent to the Grave Creek Mound, is named for Delf Norona, an amateur archaeologist who immigrated to the United States and had an passionate interest in the Grave Creek Mound. He opened a museum at south base of the mound and was the museum's curator. . The Delf Norona Museum was established in December of 1978 opening up the world of the Adena for all to see. The upper level of the museum is dedicated to the findings concerning the life and culture of the Adena people as well as the construction of the Grave Creek Mound. The Adena did not have written records, so it is important to study what was left by them in order to learn more about their cultures and beliefs. The strategies of how the Adena built burial mounds is not well known, but visiting the Grave Creek Mound Archaeological Complex will provide insight to decipher the Adena culture.  The West Virginia Collections Management and Research Facility includes a viewing window where visitors can watch artifact curation in progress and on the first Saturday of October, Archaeology Day is celebrated with a behind the scenes tour of the Research Center where the state archaeological is housed.

The Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, WV is the largest Adena conical burial mound in North America. The major West Virginia landmark is currently 62 feet high and 240 feet in diameter and is estimated to contain 57,000 tons of earth. Archaeologists believe that the mound was constructed sometime during the Early Woodland period in successive stages during 250-150 B.C. The mound once had a three-story observatory and Civil War artillery on its summit. Horse races were often run around the base. 

Today the Grave Creek mound is owned and operated by the West Virginia Department of Arts, Culture and History as part of the Grave Creek Mound Archaeological Complex. The Complex includes the Delf Norona Museum and the state's repository for West Virginia's archaeological collections.

Grave Creek Mound Archaelogical Complex

The Hopewell often settled near river valleys and buried
their dead inside large conical mounds of earth along the riverbanks. Mounds once existed
all along the main river ways of West Michigan, although many were vandalized by
treasure-seekers or destroyed by development over the years. The Norton Mound
group, located along the Grand River, is one of the best-preserved and largest
groups of mounds still in existence. It once held about 35 mounds, and today
there are 13. They range in from 1.5 to 15 feet in height and from 30 to 100
feet in diameter.1 Another group called the Converse Mounds were located in what
is now downtown Grand Rapids, but they were destroyed in the 1850s by farmers
and land developers.

The Hopewell had a vast trading network. Mounds have been
found to contain shells from the Gulf of Mexico, obsidian from the Rocky
Mountains, and shark’s teeth from the Atlantic Ocean. Copper mined from
Northern Michigan was also used to create knives, jewelry, and other goods. Pottery,
furs, and food were also buried in the mounds. The Hopewell were nomadic
hunter-gatherers who did some farming and had temporary housing. For this
reason, little remains of their way of life, and much of what we know of them
comes from the burial mounds. Around 100BCE, the Hopewell culture disappeared. No one quite knows why they stopped building these mounds or what happened
to them. 2 

The Norton Mounds were first excavated in 1874, led by archaeologist
W. L. Coffinberry, who was affiliated with the Kent County Scientific Institute
(now the Public Museum of Grand Rapids). In the early 1960s, the Norton Mounds
were excavated again, this time by the University of Michigan headed by Richard
Flanders, and at least 48 individuals were exhumed along with dozens of grave
goods, such as pottery, shells, beads, and animal parts.3 After NAGPRA (Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) was passed in 1990, some artifacts
and human remains were returned to Native American groups for a respectful
reburial. The Norton Mound Group was recognized as a National Historic Landmark
in 1965. &nbsp;According to the museum’s
website: “The Museum is currently working with community input to develop
future plans for respectful preservation of and educational access to the site.
Until this important work is completed, all scientific studies throughout the
entire Norton Mound Group and its related cultural resources collections will
be restricted.”4

Over 2000 years ago, the Hopewell became one of the earliest groups of Native Americans to settle in the West Michigan area. The Hopewell culture is especially prevalent in Ohio, but it extended all across the Eastern United States, including throughout Michigan. Grand Rapids holds one of the most significant sites in the remaining history of the Hopewell: the Norton Mound group. The site is a National Historic Landmark and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Norton Mounds Group & Hopewell Indian Mounds Park

This particular ancient work is both a mound and an earthwork, or rather an earthwork containing a possible animal effigy mound. The earthwork consists of an almost elliptical enclosure, the longest axis being 480 feet, and its conjugate diameter measuring 407 feet. The embankment was approximately three feet high and had a base width of thirty feet when it was surveyed in 1846. The oval is incomplete, having a gateway in the south-eastern area measuring approximately 90 feet wide. There is a second small embankment that seems to guard the gateway and matches the three-foot height of the large embankment. The interior of the embankment houses an oddly shaped mound that was excavated by the Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society. The original survey from 1846 has the mound at a height ranging from 1-8 feet with the smaller heights located at what would be considered the head and the four points of the legs. The 1915 excavation measured the mound at 250 feet in length, 120 feet wide, with a height of 5 feet. The shape of the mound has been compared to similar mounds found in Wisconsin. Its irregular shape has been attributed to the structure contained within. This mound consists of a charnel house with multiple partitions. A charnel house is a place built with the specific intent of interring the remains of the dead. It has been found that burial mounds were built in sections with the main burial relating to a very important person, and as other celebrated individuals passed, the mound would be added to over time changing its shape or adding height in the case of many conical mounds. Other burial mounds built by the same culture usually contain multiple burials with the individuals being separated and contained in a form of log tomb. This mound differs greatly not only in shape but also in the way remains were interred. Two people are buried in graves beneath the floor of the main burial chambers. It is assumed that these were the first burials. The main structure is divided into five burial depositories and contains twelve crematory basins. Approximately 375 people were cremated using these basins and then interred in four of the depositories with one standing empty. There was also an extraordinary number of artifacts within the mound. One of the eastern chambers contained 500 objects which had been deliberately broken, possibly ceremoniously, rather than as a result of heat exposure. Records indicate that other mounds in the area located both charred and uncharred artifacts and textiles, meaning bodies were likely cremated elsewhere before burial; otherwise, no textiles would remain due to the high heat needed for the bodies. Then, after burial, a second or “final” ceremony was held, where the body and textiles were again burned, with some artifacts being added afterward. Tremper Mound differed from the other mounds in the area in several ways. Not only were charred textiles the only ones located, but archaeologist William C. Mills, who led the 1915 excavation, never recorded the idea that this may have meant the bodies were cremated elsewhere. The mound was also unique in that ashes from the cremations were placed into communal depositories, as well as those artifacts of the dead being placed into common caches. The burial of the cremated was also located beneath the base of the mound. It contained 136 smoking pipes, with 90 of those being animal effigy pipes, some carved into birds including waterfowl like herons, cranes, and even predatory birds like owls and hawks. Other pipes were shaped like turtles, otters, beavers, bears, and wolves. These were thought to have been symbols of guardian animals and possibly smoked during rituals. The Hopewell culture of pre-contact Native American people, named after a burial mound earthwork complex on the farm of M.C. Hopewell in Chillicothe, Ohio, were praised for trade in exotic materials from North America. While they were centrally located in Ohio, they were also found in Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and New York, and the pipes were representative of that. Originally, it was thought that they were carved from kaolinite, which is easy to work with and nearby, since the pieces were so detailed the subspecies of animal or whiskers on the faces could be distinguished. It was later made evident that many of the pipes were made of a pipestone known as catlinite, a red argillite from Minnesota. Testing then also revealed that some of the stone was quarried locally while other pipes were made of Sterling pipestone that hails from northwestern Illinois. This again shows the long stretching trade route that had been established or continued by the Hopewell people, remembered for their geometric earthworks and their trade of obsidian, copper, mica, and marine shell used to create funerary and other useful items.

Tremper Mound is one of the best-preserved examples of a Hopewell Culture (100 B.C. to 500 A.D.) burial mound. Like many other earthworks and mounds, this site is in close proximity to a river and is located on a bluff which overlooks the Scioto River. There has been debate about whether this particular mound should be considered an animal effigy mound, known as a zoomorphic geoglyph, because of its unique shape, or whether this was a burial mound because of its use and contents. Animal effigy smoking pipes account for a large portion of the recovered artifacts, giving insight into the Hopewell people by both their use and the materials used to make them. The history of the mound and the artifacts removed from it are displayed at the Ohio History Center in Columbus, Ohio.

Tremper Mound and Earthworks

The Serpent Mound is the largest surviving prehistoric effigy mound in the world. It is also one of only two effigy mounds in Ohio. The mound measures 1,348 feet long and stands approximately three feet tall.&nbsp;The first known survey of the mound, also called the Great Serpent, was performed by E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis in 1846. Their findings were published in&nbsp;the book Ancient Monuments of the&nbsp;Mississippi Valley (1848). Even&nbsp;they seemed to have a difficult time ascertaining&nbsp;exactly what the Great Serpent was, ultimately classifying&nbsp;it as a work of sacred origin. Up until this time, similar mounds were thought to be only of a defensive nature or for burial purposes. The Great Serpent did not fit into either category. Now, such structures are&nbsp;known as effigy mounds (effigy meaning a sculpture or model of a person or animal).

Not only is the Serpent Mound’s purpose unknown, so are its creators. Due to a lack of related artifacts or other records,&nbsp;archaeologists and historians have been forced&nbsp;to rely on non-mound related artifacts and carbon dating to theorize about the mound’s origins. Carbon dating completed in 1996 suggested that the mound was either built or renovated around 1070 C.E. when the Fort Ancient culture was active. This went against the previous theory, which held that the Adenas were the builders of the mound. To further confuse matters, two nearby mounds belong to the Adena, while a third is attributed to the Fort Ancient culture. In 2014, new radiocarbon dates again pointed to the Adena, around 300 B.C.E. One possible explanation is that the Serpent Mound was made by one culture and then renovated by a later culture. This also means that the mound could have had different purposes over the years.&nbsp;

&nbsp;The Serpent Mound was designed using a layer of clay and ash, then reinforced with stones. It appears that the Serpent was laid out all at one time. Underneath the site is an area of folded bedrock. Though it may not have been known by the builders of the mound, the geologic features of the site are very interesting, too. The head of the Serpent is located at the beginning of a steep cliff that looks over the creek below. The rest of the Serpent lays on a high plateau and conforms to the natural topography of the crater rim above the Ohio Bush Creek. Geologists believe that the four-mile-wide circular crater is the result of either a crypto-explosion or an asteroid collision having happened approximately 250 million years ago. It has been dubbed "The Serpent Mound Disturbance".

Today, we also know that the curves of the Serpent line up with different yearly equinoxes. In fact, when visiting the site, there are signs explaining which equinox the different parts of the Serpent Mound align with. Some of the most popular times to visit the mound are during the sunset celebrations held annually on June 21st and during the December Luminaria. Each year on the winter solstice, the outline of the Serpent is lit up with lights by volunteers, giving the visitors a unique view of this slithering giant.

Native Americans from thousands of years ago have left their mark in modern-day Ohio by building mounds and massive earthworks. One such mound, the Serpent Mound, was excavated by Harvard University archaeologist Frederic Ward Putnam in the late nineteenth century. Based on his work, later archaeologists attributed the effigy to the Adena culture, which flourished from circa 1000 B.C.E. to 50 C.E. This theory on the site's origin was widely accepted until 1991 when pieces of charcoal found within the Serpent Mound were radiocarbon dated to be approximately 900 years old. Going by this date, the creators of the Serpent Mound likely belonged to the Fort Ancient culture (circa 1000 C.E.-1750 C.E.). In 2014, however, new radiocarbon dating suggested that the mound was built in 300 B.C.E. and possibly renovated later. The site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places under Stubbs Earthworks.




Serpent Mound

Alligator Mound is an effigy mound, or zoomorphic geoglyph, found in Granville, Ohio. The mound was first mapped in 1848 by Ephraim Squier and Edwin Davis, and is 200 feet long and around four feet high. Since that time, the site has been investigated several times, however, its origin and use still remains a mystery. Despite the name, many researchers believe that because alligators are not native to Ohio, the shape of the mound represents a creature more like a raccoon, opossum, or panther. The most commonly held belief is that the mound was initially meant to represent the “Underwater Panther,” a powerful supernatural spirit in Native American culture. However, settlers misinterpreted the translation, thus deeming it an alligator. One of only two effigy mounds in Ohio, with the other being the Great Serpent Mound, Alligator Mound was thought to have been created by the Hopewell culture based solely on its proximity to the Newark Earthworks. Over time, that theory changed. In 1999, the site underwent another excavation, and studies indicated that a stone path that led to a circular stone patio near the mound had been a place of numerous fires. Radiocarbon dates from the charcoal of the rocks dated back to 1170-1270 A.D., and therefore placed the mound’s construction as part of the Late Prehistoric Fort Ancient culture, which lasted from 1000-1550 A.D. Later, another examination of Alligator Mound proved it was older than even the Fort Ancient culture dated, likely originating with the Adena culture thousands of years earlier. However, it is also possible the Fort Ancient culture used the site for their own purposes. Although effigy mounds are rare in Ohio, they are common in the upper Mississippi Valley and prevalent in some western states such as Wisconsin. There is a belief that the prehistoric people had an extensive trade route established and used the rivers to their full advantage, as, like most mounds, Alligator Mound is close to a water source. Many other known sites of habitation have contained materials that could not have gotten there in any other manner. In the 1840s, the Alligator Mound was nearly bulldozed to make room for the residential neighborhood that surrounds it today. The developer agreed to stop the project, but the mound was used as a pasture for several years. Interest in preserving Alligator Mound did not begin until 1971, when it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In the 1980s, the current 1.5 acres the mound is on was set aside. The mound is now owned by the Licking County Historical Society and is preserved as a small park for the community.

The Alligator Mound in Granville, Ohio, received its name from the Native Americans who created it, although the exact timeline of its origin is questionable. While the mound resembles creatures such as a racoon or panther, it is thought to have been a representation of the Native American “Underwater Panther,” a powerful supernatural spirit. Multiple excavations of the site have led researches to uncertainty of the time period in which the mound was constructed, but many believe it was part of the Adena culture, being used by the Fort Ancient culture thousands of years later due to radiocarbon dating of charcoal in the area. In 1971, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is one of only two effigy mounds in Ohio.

"Alligator" Mound

Located in Campbell Park on the west side of Columbus along McKinley Avenue, Shrum Mound was built by Native inhabitants two thousand years ago. The mound stands 20 feet tall with a diameter of 100 feet. According to the Ohio Department of Tourism, the mound is named for the family that donated the land. The mound is located in Campbell Park, named for James E. Campbell who was the governor of Ohio between 1890 and 1892.

Shrum Mound

The mound sits on a one hundred foot high bluff and originally stood 70 feet or more at its peak. Past excavations have lowered the height down to around 65 feet. It maintains a base circumference of 877 feet. This mound is a burial mound dating from the Adena Culture. The Adena Culture is known to have stretched from Indiana to New York and Central Ohio south to Kentucky. Southern Ohio is considered the center of their culture because of the size and number of mounds and earthworks located there. Prior to widespread European settlement, there were upwards of ten thousand features spread across Ohio alone. The Adena were the first farmers growing sunflowers, squash and pumpkins. They were also making clay pottery and showed signs of having an extensive trade route allowing them to gather materials from far off places.

In 1869 a partial excavation was performed on the mound by digging a vertical shaft from the top of the mound to the base. This shaft was then cross-sectioned with a horizontal shaft going out from the center shaft. The excavators found a single skeleton 8’ deep from the top and also an open room made from logs most likely being a charnel house or an area built specifically for remains often times cremated. Like many other mounds that have been excavated, this mound was found to have been built in many stages. Past experience investigating other mounds has let science see that bodies were not often added to the mounds one on top of another in a straight line. But rather they could be added on the sides and in many different configurations.

This mound has been well preserved due to the land being a park since 1920 and then donated to the Ohio Historical Society in 1929.

Miamisburg Mound Park contains one the two largest conical-shaped mounds in eastern North America. This park is open to the public with the mound featuring 116 concrete steps that allow visitors to ascend 65 feet to the top of the structure. The mound is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Miamisburg Mound State Memorial

The cemetery is home to a monument constructed by the Confederate Memorial Association that was dedicated in September of 1867 and includes the words "Southern Rights" carved into stone. The first Confederate Monument erected in a state that remained loyal to the Union, the monument includes the following inscription: "The Daughters of Old Hampshire erect this tribute of affection to her heroic Sons, who fell in defense of Southern Rights." The graves in the cemetery tell the story of life in Hampshire County.

Indian Mound Cemetery is located on land that was utilized as a burial ground prior to the arrival of settlers of European descent. In 1860, land adjacent to the Native American burial mound was donated by local resident David Gibson for the purpose of creating a cemetery. This area was also the site of an early Civil War skirmish as Union forces advanced on Confederate-held positions early in the war/ The cemetery includes graves of several leading political leaders including West Virginia governors and descendants of George Washington. 

Indian Mound Cemetery 

Town Creek Indian Mound is the only state historic site in North Carolina that&nbsp;is dedicated&nbsp;to decoding the state's Indian background. It has been the focus of an extensive archaeological investigation since 1937. This was when the site was taken by the state. The mound area at Town Creek is a rectangular block 120 feet by 140 feet, encompassing the mound. It was named the "Frutchey Mound" after Lloyd Frutchey. He&nbsp;conveyed the site to the state in 1937.Between the years 1937 and 1942, archaeological work&nbsp;was supported by the federal government. In 1937, excavations were conducted through the Works Progress Administration (WPA). From 1938 to 1939, excavations were done through the National Youth Administration. The WPA conducted the archaeology from 1940 to 1942. Between 1945 and 1955, the archaeological excavation was completed. Then all of the research and&nbsp;investigations were funded by&nbsp;North Carolina.The Indians believed that their burial sites were more sacred if they made them higher than the normal ground level. They believed it was "closer to the heavens." This&nbsp;is demonstrated at Town Creek with the mounds significantly higher. There have been many artifacts discovered at the Town Creek Indian Mound. Artifacts including Pee Dee sherds which were made from pots finished with carved wooden paddles. There were even grooved axes and arrowheads found along with clay pipes. There is a lot of Indian history that archaeologists cease to be amazed about at the Town Creek Indian Mound. <div><div></div></div>

For more than a thousand years, Indians lived an agricultural life on the lands in present day North Carolina. About the 11th century A.D., a new cultural tradition emerged in the Pee Dee River Valley. That culture was part of a widespread tradition known as "South Appalachian Mississippian to archaeologists." Throughout Georgia, South Carolina, eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, and the southern North Carolina, the new culture gave rise to complex societies. These people built mounds for their spiritual and political leaders. They were involved in trade, supported craft specialists, and they even celebrated a new kind of religion.

Town Creek Indian Mound

Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site is a significant Native American and early Colonial period archaeological site located next to a recreational park. Evidence suggests that the site was occupied as early as 1550. It remained so until around 1830 when the Cherokee were forced to leave these lands. During the Colonial period, the site became a trading center where Cherokee and settlers traded goods; it was also a site along a trading route. At its peak, the mound featured a large public townhouse that served as council house and temple. At the base was a plaza which was surrounded by homes and crops were planted outside of the village. The site is managed by the Clay County Communities Revitalization Association.

Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site

Angel Mounds is the site of the largest settlement of its time in what is now known as Indiana. It was a fortified town serving as a social, political, and religious center for a much larger area of villages, hamlets, and farmsteads that ran 70 miles along the Ohio River, from the Wabash River to 35 miles east of Evansville.  


The town and surrounding settlements together constituted a chiefdom and were occupied from as early as A.D. 1000 to as late as A.D. 1450 by Native Americans whom archaeologists call Mississippians. The term &ldquo;Mississippian&rdquo; refers to an Indian culture, or way of life, which developed in the Mississippi River Valley about A.D. 800 and spread, with regional variations, across the southeastern United States to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 


This culture was characteristic of many different groups who spoke a variety of languages. We have no way of knowing what language the people who lived here spoke, what they called themselves, or what they called the town they built here. The town became known as Angel Mounds because it was part of a farm owned by the Angel family for over 100 years.


This region of the Ohio Valley has been occupied by a succession of people with different cultures. Paleo-Indians, big-game hunters who lived in this region as early as 12,000 years ago, were followed by Archaic hunters and gatherers around 9,000 years ago. By 1000 B.C. the succeeding Woodland peoples had begun to experiment with horticulture and to build ceremonial centers and mounds, activities which laid the foundations for the full-scale corn agriculture and permanent towns and villages of the Mississippian farmers by A.D. 1000. 


After the abandonment of Angel Mounds by A.D. 1400 &ndash; 1450, the population shifted downstream to the mouth of the Wabash where they built a number of large villages before leaving the area altogether by A.D. 1650. We do not know whether any living Native Americans are descendants of the people who once lived at Angel Mounds. Roving bands of Shawnee, Miami and other historic Native Americans moved into this area from the east and north and were followed by Euro-American settlers by A.D. 1800.


To preserve Angel Mounds, the Indiana Historical Society bought 412 acres of the site in 1938 with money donated by Eli Lilly. In 1946, the Historical Society gave the property to the State of Indiana and in 1965 granted the excavation rights to Indiana University along with the responsibility to house the artifacts. The original purchase was augmented by Elda Clayton Patton Herts' donation of 20 acres containing an early Woodland mound. This mound lies across from the entrance to Angel Mounds State Historic Site on the north side of Pollack Avenue.


From 1939 &ndash; 1942, the United States Works Progress Administration workers, under the direction of Glenn A. Black, conducted scientific excavations. In 1945, Indiana University began archaeological research at the site, work which continues to expand our understanding of the people who lived here. The Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites Corporation now protects, manages, and interprets Angel Mounds State Historic Site.

Angel Mounds State Historic Site

Discovered in the 1800s
and early 1900s, Pyramid Mound was thought to be a "mound" similar to
other conical man-made structures built by pre-historic peoples. However,
archaeological excavations in the 1970s and 1980s demonstrated that Pyramid
Mound was actually a loess (a hill consisting of silt formed by wind) and was
used by native peoples to bury their dead. Specifically, it has been determined
that it was used by a group of Mississippi natives, known as the Vincennes. The
mound is clearly visible from the road and visitors can walk to it. It is
managed by the Knox County Parks and Recreation Department. The mound was
placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.

Pyramid Mound is an archaeological site in Vincennes, Indiana located along Wabash Avenue east of Highway 41. What is often thought to be a “mound,” is actually a loess, which is a naturally formed hill that was used by the natives to perform traditional ceremonies while burying their dead.

Pyramid Mound

Flourishing during the Mississippian Culture (1,000 A.D. to 1550 A.D.), the Etowah Indian Mounds is the most intact Mississippian Culture site in the Southeast. The Mississippian Culture was the last major cultural development in North America before the arrival of Europeans. Mississippians were horticulturalists who planted and tended gardens of a variety of crops. They lived in communities known as Chiefdoms. Chiefdoms consisted of several settlements with a centralized capital or chiefdom. Their society was divided into two groups: the elite and the commoner. (1) The Etowah Indian Mounds reached its height around 1250 A.D. Adjust to the Etowah River, the Etowah Indian Mounds historic site covers 54 acres. Three prominent mounds are still visible; although, the site consists of six mounds altogether. The largest mound is more than 300 square feet at the base and rises to a height of slightly more than 60 feet. Buildings were erected on top of the mounds. The site has two plazas and public buildings. Residential housing surrounded the Mounds and plaza. In closing the town was a ditch and wooden palisades. (2) Visitors can view the many artifacts uncovered in the archaeological excavation of Mound C in the museum. The museum shows how natives of this political and religious center decorated themselves with shell beads, paint, complicated hairdos, feathers and copper ear ornaments. Hand-carved stone effigies weighing 125 pounds still bear some original pigments. Objects made of wood, seashells and stone are also displayed. Of the many artifacts uncovered, the two Etowah marble figures are the most famous.

Home to several thousand Native Americans from 1000 A.D. to 1550 A.D., this 54-acre site protects six earthen mounds, a plaza, village site, borrow pits and defensive ditch. Towering over the community, the 63-foot earthen knoll was likely used as a platform for the home of the priest-chief. The site is a National Historic Landmark and visitors and includes a museum that explores Etowah's history.

Etowah Indian Mounds Historic State Park

The Leake Mound site is a archaeological site located by the Etowah River in Cartersville, Georgia. The site occupation lasted from approximately 300 B.C. until 650 A.D. The site has three small earthen mounds and was a important center during the woodland period. An interpretive trail allows visitors to learn about the inhabitants of the site. 

Leake Mound 

The Kincaid Mounds&nbsp;mark the site of a cultural center that was last occupied around 1000 years ago. Details on the specifics of its original inhabitants are scarce,&nbsp;but the mounds have left behind some clues as to what their life might have been like. Closer to the present day, European colonists found the mounds There are no known written records of what specific culture built and lived in the Kincaid Mounds. In absence of written records, they have been dubbed the "Mississippian people" due to the location of the mounds. There are limited physical artifacts from that time. Some speculation can be done based on the cultures that neighbored the mounds, but nothing is completely certain. There is some archaeological evidence that points towards a hierarchical society. The titular mounds are thought to have been where community authority figures would have constructed their houses, with the height being a status symbol. Some speculate that the arrival of corn as a staple crop in the region might have lead to the development of the settlement. It is generally agreed that the people lived a semi-sedentary lifestyle, with construction of permanent housing and the reliance on farming as a stable food source. At some point, the Kincaid Mounds were abandoned by the inhabitants. There is evidence that at its peak, average temperatures at the Kincaid Mounds were several degrees warmer than they are in the modern day. It is speculated that the settlement might have been abandoned due to the subsequent "mini ice-age," which would have made agriculture more difficult and created problems with feeding a large population. The area officially designated as the Kincaid Mounds extends for 100 acres, but the actual full extent of the original settlement is thought to be much larger. Magnetometry, the measuring of magnetism in soil, has been used to further study the mounds. Evidence of fires and paths can be found in the soil, marking the locations of fireplaces and high-traffic areas in the settlement. Evidence of habitation, including magnetic traces in the soil as well as physical artifacts such as pottery, extend beyond the Kincaid Mounds. Even in the present day, archaeological work uncovers more information about this Mississippian people. Visitors to the Kincaid Mounds can expect to view the mounds from a distance. Informational panels are available on the viewing platform, containing educational information about the mounds, their history, and their cultural significance.

These mounds are part of a large 105-acre historical site. Visitors can view the mounds from viewing platforms, but closer observation is not available to the public. The Kincaid Mounds hold a wealth of archaeological information about the people that inhabited the area many centuries ago.

Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site

The park now covers 83 acres but originally it started out with 26.7. Archaeologists from the Smithsonian Institution first surveyed the area in 1924 and identified five mounds. Another survey in 1991 identified 100 archaeological sites. The museum, which is designed after a Cherokee Council house, was built in 1995.

Founded in 1991, the Oakville Indian Mounds Education Center is a museum dedicated to preserving the history of the prehistoric Native Americans who inhabited the area between 1,000 B.C.-1,000 C.E.: the Middle Woodland culture and the Copena culture. They built five mounds, two of which survive today. The Middle Woodland people built the Oakville Ceremonial Mound, which is the largest mound in the state at 1.5 acres wide and 27 feet tall. It likely served as the religious and social focal point for the community at the time. The Copena mound is one of the best preserved burial mounds in the state. The Copena culture is distinguished its use of copper and galena for tools and other items. The museum features 1,000 artifacts, including numerous points, as well as exhibits on the Cherokee people—who moved into the area as Europeans began to arrive in the 17th century—and the "Black Dutch" people, mixed-race descendants of Europeans and Cherokees of the 19th century.  

Oakville Indian Mounds Education Center

The Mississippians who once lived here were part of a large society that extended up and down the Mississippi River. Its members built numerous villages along the river and created a far-reaching trade network with the river serving as the central highway. The village, in what is now Wickliffe and Ballard County, Kentucky, probably had several hundred inhabitants. As with other Mississippian cultures, the community had a social hierarchy and was ruled by a hereditary chief. The village at Wickliffe thrived until around 1300, when, for reasons that are still unknown, the natives began to abandon their home. By 1350, they had all moved on from the site. When the natives started to abandon Wickliffe, they slowly moved to the Twin Mounds Site. That site is several miles to the northeast, near the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.The area and mounds were first mapped in 1888. Artifacts were discovered in 1930 by workers building Highway 51. The land was then purchased by Paducah-based amateur archaeologist Fain King in 1932. He began extensive excavations with plans of building a tourist attraction. King’s attraction, known as the Ancient Buried City, displayed many of the items dug from the area, to include native remains. The land eventually was transferred to Murray State University in 1983, and the archaeological excavations continued, albeit in a more systematic and meticulous manner. The university then passed the site to the state of Kentucky in 2004. The state then created the Wickliffe Mounds State Historic Site. The museum at the site now displays native pottery, stone tools, and replicas of the human remains and displays that convey their artwork and way of life. It also presents changing special exhibits, hands-on displays, demonstrations, and educational programs. The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, and is also a Kentucky Archaeological Landmark.

The Wickliffe Mounds State Historic Site represents the remains of a once flourishing village occupied by hundreds of members of the vast Mississippian society, which existed from c. 1100-1350 AD. These Native Americans created a village around a large, central plaza that included several flat-topped platforms, or mounds. The site is located on a bluff above the Ohio River, and is dominated by two large platform mounds, with at least eight smaller mounds. The site, open since 1932, now contains a museum that houses many artifacts excavated from the area, as well as replicas of their artwork. One can also walk along trails that meander around the mounds. It is on the National Register of Historic Places, and is also a Kentucky Archaeological Landmark and State Historic Site.

Wickliffe Mounds State Historic Site

The site was first documented by Joel Pinson, who arrived in the area in 1818 after the Chickasaw Native Americans ceded west Tennessee to the federal government. Pinson and crew completed their survey of&nbsp;the site in 1820. An archaeologist from the Smithsonian Institution surveyed the site in 1916. In 1947, the Tennessee Division of Forestry bought the property and a few other excavations took place in the coming years.

The Pinson Mounds State Park is a significant pre-historic Native American archaeological site located in Pinson, Tennessee. This large 400-acre site includes 17 mounds, an earthen geometric enclosure, and numerous habitation areas, that were most likely built during the Middle Woodland period (c. 1-500 A.D.). The complex is the largest group of Middle Woodland mounds in the United States. The largest one, Sauls' Mound, which rises to 72 feet, is the second highest surviving mound in the United States. The site is a National Historic Landmark and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. There is a museum at the site that is inside a replica mound and six miles of trails.

Pinson Mounds State Park

The Bear Creek Mound and Village Site is the location of a historic Indian mound&nbsp;that is an important archaeological site today. The site of the village is believed to have been used as early as 8000 B.C., while the mound was constructed between 1100 and 1300 A.D., during the Mississippian period.&nbsp;Natives of the site began practicing limited forms of agriculture during the first century A.D. The mound itself was constructed in different stages and is believed to have been used for ceremonial purposes or residential use for those of higher status. The National Park Service managed to acquire the property in 1965, and excavations were started soon after. The excavations revealed remnants of structural materials, specifically burned daub, a type of mud plaster. Burned daub was used in building construction at the time the mound was built, so its presence indicates that a building was present on top of the mound, likely a temple or the house of a chief. Before the National Park Service acquired the property, it was used as agricultural land by modern day farmers. Some of the farmers actually lowered the mound to make it more suitable for farming. The plowing of the field and the mound area lowered the height of the mound significantly from its original 8 feet. When the National Park Service got the property of the mound and village site, the site was so reduced in height that it had to be repaired. After the excavations of the site were completed, the mound was rebuilt to what is presumed to have been its original height of eight feet. Today the mound dimensions are 8 feet in height by 85 feet across the base of the mound.

Located along the Natchez Trace Parkway is the Bear Creek Mound and Village Site, which features a large Indian mound. Ancient peoples first occupied this site around 8,000 B.C., using it as a temporary encampment to butcher animal kills. Natives began practicing agriculture at the site between 1 and 100 A.D. The land was eventually used for modern farming, which reduced the size of the mound from plowing and agricultural use. The National Park Service acquired the property in 1965. After excavating the remnants of the site, the mound was restored to its estimated original height of 8 feet.

Bear Creek Mound and Village Site 

Although a highly civilized society, what is today known as the Cahokia culture did not have a system of writing, leaving much of the history also a mystery. Inhabited from around A.D. 700 to 1400, the reasons for the large city's decline is unknown. Early European settlers, who were biased against the idea that Native Americans could have ever existed in such a significant civilization, when discovering the remains at Cahokia, suggested some other foreign society, such as the Phoenicians, must have arrived in the Americas and built it.1 Thus little research was given to the vast mounds that had been left by the Cahokia.&nbsp;Only in the 20th century did archaeologists turn their attention to Cahokia, where hundreds of&nbsp;houses upon houses were unearthed, indicating the expansive city.&nbsp;Though perhaps not huge by today's standard, at the city's peak (around AD 1050-1200), it held a population of an estimated&nbsp;20,000 people--a number that would not be rivaled anywhere in America for several centuries.&nbsp;Slowly historians began to realize that an ancient civilization&nbsp;(and not one founded by Phoenicians) once existed among the Native Americans.&nbsp;Incredibly a grand plaza, used for religious ceremonies, feasts, and sporting events,&nbsp;the size of 45 football fields was also uncovered. The discovery of the civilization also abolished the Western (and patronizing)&nbsp;idea of the "noble savage," who had always lived in little egalitarian (mostly nomadic) communities. Instead, a complex community with significant farming practices and&nbsp;which practiced ritual human sacrifice and deep hierarchies were discovered. One well-honored man, for example, was found to be buried along with 53 young women and several decapitated men. However, how far-reaching the hierarchies were, who was sacrificed and why, and what the system of community actually looked like remain unclear. Was the city simply an unusually large Mississippi community? Or was it brought together by a leader, who centralized his/her power at Cahokia, but extended it across a greater region? These are the questions visitors will be forced to ponder when given the chance to encounter the incredible remains of the mysterious Cahokia civilization.

The Cahokian Mounds of southern Illinois remind visitors of an ancient civilization and the thriving city that once existed in its place, centuries before Europeans ever "discovered" the Americas. Sadly, most Americans have not yet discovered this UNESCO World Heritage site, which showcases the "Cahokia" civilization (their real name is unknown, as they had not adopted a written system) from the 8th century through the 15th century. To understand American prehistory, however, this site is a must-see.

Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site

The Pharr Mounds are an important piece of Native American history located near Tupelo, Mississippi. The mounds date back to the Middle Woodland period, meaning they were built between 1 and 200 A.D. The 8 burial mounds at the site span an area of 85 acres and vary in height from 2 to 18 feet. It is believed that the mounds were built and used by a nomadic Indian tribe until 1200 A.D. This tribe likely returned to the mounds periodically in order to bury their dead. The Pharr Mounds have become an important archaeological site. The National Park Service excavated four of the mounds in 1966. There were various internal features discovered within the mounds, including fire pits and clay platforms. There were also human remains found inside, both cremated and unburned. Ceremonial artifacts were also discovered inside, including copper spools, ceramic vessels, a greenstone platform pipe, mica, and lumps of galena, which is a shiny lead ore. Several items found within the mounds are not known to originate in Mississippi, implying the existence of trade networks that reached distant places. The copper items and the greenstone are not native to the area, and neither are the galena and mica. These items were likely imported through long distance trade routes, meaning the tribe had access to items from outside the Mississippi area.

The Pharr Mounds site is one the largest and most important ancient Native American sites in the southeast United States. It features eight Middle Woodland mounds dating between 0-200 A.D. in a roughly 85-acre area. The National Park Service conducted excavations of four of the mounds and found numerous artifacts, cremated and non-cremated human remains, and clay platforms. Artifacts found include copper tools and objects and decorative ceramic vessels. Many of the objects, including the copper ones, were not native to the area, highlighting the site's extensive trading networks. Only three of the mounds are visible from the parking lot. 

Pharr Mounds

The mounds were named after chiropractor Don Dickinson, who owned a farm on the site. He began excavating the mounds in 1927 and opened a private museum. For a time, some of the burials were excavated but not removed. They were covered by a special structure to protect them. However, in 1992, under pressure from Native Americans, the museum reburied the remains. &nbsp;The location of the covered remains now includes a film screen surrounding the room, depicting the spiritual practices and afterlife beliefs of the Native American society that lived there. The museum site&nbsp;contains exhibits that span over twelve thousand years of Mississippian River. &nbsp;On display are skeletons of Ice Age animals, life-sized dioramas depicting Native Mississippian culture, and&nbsp;several archaeological artifacts. &nbsp;There is&nbsp;also a gift shop and a children's play area. &nbsp;On the grounds are eleven mounds and two burial spots, along with a bluff overlooking the Illinois River Valley.

Placed on the National Register in 1972, Dickson Mounds is a significant Native American burial mound site located southeast of Lewistown, Illinois. The site consists of several mounds as well as the Dickson Mounds Museum, which was built in 1972 and is a branch of the Illinois State Museum. The mounds date from 800 CE-1250 CE and they are thought to contain around 3,000 burials. The museum features exhibits that explore the interaction between the peoples who have lived in the area and the Illinois river, from the Ice Age to the present day; the culture and life of the inhabitants of the Illinois River valley through the artifacts they left behind; and the Mississippian people who constructed the mounds.

Dickson Mounds (Dickson Mounds Museum)

At its peak, Moundville had a population of about 1,000 and was protected by a wooden palisade on three sides; the Black Warrior River served as the fourth side. Archaeological excavations have revealed many dwellings and other structures and burials. Shells, pottery, stonework, as well as rare&nbsp;luxury goods such as copper, mica, and galena have been discovered. The differences in burials demonstrates how stratified site was, as those with luxury goods were part of the upper classes, which of course includes the leader or chieftain at the very top. As with other large ancient sites, Moundville had enormous sway over&nbsp;the surrounding valley in which roughly 10,000 people lived. It is speculated that these people gave tribute to Moundville in the former food and labor. Cultivation of maize was the site's main economic driver, as it gave inhabitants a surplus of food in which to trade. By 1350, Moundville was no longer a town but remained an important religious and political center. By 1500 it was essentially&nbsp;abandoned. It is not known why Moundville declined (or how it exactly emerged). The site became a park in 1933.&nbsp;

A National Historic Landmark, Moundville is one the most historically significant ancient sites in the United States. It dates from 1000-1450 A.D. and is the second-largest site of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia, which is located in Illinois. Moundville features well over two dozen mounds, encompassing an area of several hundred acres, about 185 of which comprise the Moundville Archaeological Park. The University of Alabama manages the site and also operates a museum here, which opened in 1939. The largest earthworks are mounds A and B, the latter being the tallest at 58 feet high. The smaller mounds were likely used for ceremonial and mortuary purposes and the larger ones possibly had the homes of upper classes on top. The museum features numerous artifacts from the site on display.

Moundville Archaeological Park

The Owl Creek Mounds site is located in Tombigbee National Forest, three miles west of the Natchez Trace Parkway. The site originally contained five mounds, a central plaza, and a village area. However, only two mounds remain today. These mounds are now protected and open for visitors, with interpretive panels depicting the history and culture of the mounds.&nbsp; It is believed that the Owl Creek Mounds were built 800 to 900 years ago, between 1100 and 1200 AD. It also appears that the ceremonial site was only used for 100 years, a relatively short timeframe in comparison with other mound sites in the area. The short lifespan of the Owl Creek Mounds gives archaeologists insight on a very specific timeframe, allowing them to study the period after the site's creation in great detail. The platform mound is the largest of the mounds at the Owl Creek site. The mound is believed to have been used for a temple or elite residence, meaning that it was of great significance during its use. Two of the other mounds also contained structural remains, but the low presence of habitation debris in the area suggests that few people inhabited the site long-term.&nbsp;

The Owl Creek Mounds are comprised of five man-made plateau mounds, which are suspected to have been built between 1100 and 1200 AD. Multiple mounds have been destroyed, but two, which are owned by the U.S. Forest Service, have been preserved and are open to the public. The largest is 17 feet high and is believed to have been used for ceremonial purposes as well as the residence of high-ranking members of the community, such as chiefs.


Owl Creek Mounds

Constructed from 350CE to 600CE, the Kolomoki Mounds are one of the largest mound complexes from the Woodland Period. Seven mounds can be found within Kolomoki Mounds State Historic Park.  The park's museum is built around an excavated mound, providing an ideal setting for learning who these people were and how they lived. 

Kolomoki Mounds State Historic Park

“One of the closest-knit groups in Memphis, the residents of Orange Mound are still intensely loyal to the neighborhood that has been home to many families for generations,” said Jay Killingsworth, producer of WKNO's "A Community Called Orange Mound."1&nbsp;This production is available by clicking the link below.

Once the site of a slave plantation, Orange Mound became one of the largest communities to be built entirely by and for African Americans after the Civil War. This self-contained and independent neighborhood once rivalled Harlem for its number of Black businesses. Orange Mound had locally-owned stores and restaurants, and a higher concentration of Black attorneys and doctors than nearly any other community in the United States. Like other almost exclusively African American neighborhoods in the era of Jim Crow, it also had its own schools, churches, and cultural institutions. For example, the W. C. Handy Theater welcomed entertainers such as B.B. King and many of the greatest blues musicians trace their training back to the band at Melrose High. Today, Orange Mound shares many challenges that are common to urban areas, but also a strong sense of identity and community.   

Orange Mound

The Hopewell culture was a Native American
 celebration of the economic surplus, in food and other goods, created 
by harvesting the natural wealth of the American Midwest. Native 
Americans, in the Hopewell period, buried their dead in earthen mounds, accompanied by grave goods that displayed their status and possibly their religious and social leadership. The surviving mounds of the Toolesboro Mound Group were built by the Havana Hopewell culture sometime between 200 b.c. and 100 a.d. The status of the people buried in
 the mounds indicates that the mounds were raised by people working 
within an organized community with an established social hierarchy. Since the original construction, other groups of people have been associated with the site. It is thought that there were up to 12 mounds at one time, unfortunately, excavation has eliminated some mounds and only 7 remain today.&nbsp;

The Toolesboro Mound Group is a group of Havana Hopewell culture earthworks. They are located on  the north bank of the Iowa River near its discharge into the Mississippi River. The mouth of the Iowa River was a superb location for people skilled in hunting and the gathering of food. Some of the dead placed in the mounds were either layed in a sitting postition or creamated, while some were placed in charnel houses where the bodies would decompose, then the boides were later buried.

Toolesboro Mound Group

The mound has largely remained in good shape, which cannot be said of the other mounds nearby (these are out of the park boundary)&nbsp;that have been mostly leveled by cultivation. The site also features a long earthen embankment, of which only a portion remains.

Nanih Waiya Mound holds great significance for the Choctaw Indians, who consider it to be the heart of their culture. It is 25 feet tall, 218 feet long, and 140 feet wide. The mound plays a central role in the Choctaw creation stories, one of which says that the mound gave birth to the Choctaw ancestors who then gave rise to the tribe. It is not known exactly when the mound was built as archaeological excavations have not taken place. However, pottery shards have been found nearby and these date from 100 B.C.-400 A.D.. Similar mounds found throughout the midwest built by the ancient Mississippian cultures date to 1000-1600 A.D., so it is possible that Nanih Waiya Mound was built during this period. The mound and the immediate surrounding area, which is a state historic site, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. 

Nanih Waiya Mound

Located high on a limestone bluff overlooking the Little Maquoketa River, 32 burial mounds of the Late Woodland people dating back to A D 500-1500, rest peacefully within a protective  fence. Late Woodland people of the pre-historic Hopewell Culture built mounds for religious and ceremonial, burial, and elite residential purposes.  It is estimated that 10,000 bushels of earth were moved into the area to construct the mounds. Some mounds are 42 feet across and others 50 feet high. The mound area features a mature forest and a segment of a native bluff top prairie. The 42-acre grave site became a state archaeological and geological preserve in 1981. Over 15 Native American tribes were consulted during its development. Information about the site is located at the parking lot and bluff top. 

Little Maquoketa River Mounds

By 900 A.D., as the influence of Mississippi culture spread
into the region, sites like Letchworth-Love were replaced by more elaborate
sites such as nearby Lake Jackson. The Apalachee occupied the area when Spanish
missionaries and explorers frequented the area and eventually gave way to the
Creeks and Seminoles. The Battle of Miccosukee was fought close by during the
First Seminole War.&nbsp;

The Letchworth-Love Mounds Archaeological State Park is located just fourteen miles east of Tallahassee. The site is home to Florida’s tallest Native American ceremonial mound (46 feet high and 300 feet across), which was built between 1100 to 1800 years ago. The site served as a ceremonial, economic, and political center to the natives in the area. The park also features a pavilion picnic area, interpretive trials, and a bronze sculpture of the mound. Guided tours are available upon request. 

Letchworth-Love Mounds Archaeological State Park

As stated above, the area is related to the Fort Walter Culture (mound builders). The complexity of the mounds suggests that the area was likely the religious and political center for Native Americans living in the region. Archaeological inspections of the mounds revealed that there were once structures that stood atop the mounds. Unfortunately, such structures were destroyed.&nbsp;<div> </div><div><div>The plaza was a place of gathering and where ceremonies and ritual games were held. The residences then outlined the plaza. Communal agricultural fields outlined the residential area. Agriculture, mainly the cultivation of corn, allowed for a dense and sedentary population.&nbsp; Archeologists have also found artifacts that were likely associated with important individuals in the community. These objects include copper breastplates, necklaces, bracelets, and cloaks. Other artifacts found, such as various copper pieces, suggest that the Natives of this area had trade and religious ties to other Native American groups in the southeastern United States.&nbsp;</div></div>

Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park has been a Florida State Park since 1966 and on the National Register since 1971. It is one of the most important archaeological sites related to Native American history in Florida. The area served as the ceremonial center of the Fort Walton Culture from 1000–1500 AD. The complex originally included seven earthwork mounds, a public plaza and numerous individual village residences.

Two of the mounds are available for public viewing. There is a pavilion that can be used for social gatherings. Also, guided tours are available upon request. The park is also a great place for nature hikes and bird watching. 

Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park 

<h3>Woodland Culture</h3>The Woodland Indian Culture consists of three sub-cultures: the Early Woodland, the Middle Woodland, and the Late Woodland (Effigy). Effigy Mound-builders created mounds of earth for ceremonial, religious, or burial purposes in conical (round) and linear styles, as well as, in the shapes of bear, birds, deer, bison, lynx, panthers, turtles, or water spirits. Water spirit mounds, including turtle and panther, are traditionally found near Lake Winnebago and Lake Michigan. Bear and bird mound shapes are the most prevalent along the Mississippi River in southwest Wisconsin and northeast Iowa. <h3>Effigy Monument Mounds</h3>The Monument contains four types of mounds and four variations of burial styles used during the Woodland period. The first type of mound, the conical, is a round and domed earthen compound used for burials. Linear mounds, the second style, are ceremonial, and can often be found connected to conical mounds to form a third style, compound mounds, which were used for burials. Although conical mounds are found throughout Woodland regions, linear and compound mounds are exclusive to the Effigy Mounds area. The fourth type of mounds, effigy mounds, were used predominately for ceremonial purposes. <h3>Trails</h3>Visitors to the Effigy Mounds National Monument can explore the mounds through fourteen miles of hiking trails. The Yellow River Bridge Trail, a two mile round-trip hike, traverses a wetland environment that contains many resources, including vegetation and animals, used during the Woodland period. Hikers can see more than twenty mounds representing all four styles along Fire Point Trail, another two mile round-trip walk. Within a two mile hike around the Visitor Center, hikers can view the Great Bear Mound, one of the largest effigies of the Monument, at 137 feet long and 70 feet wide. <h3>Tribal Affiliation</h3>Besides continual visitor patronage, Effigy Mounds National Monument is also affiliated with twelve present-day American Indian Tribes. These include: Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska, Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma, Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma, Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin, Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska, Upper Sioux Community of Minnesota, Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community in the State of Minnesota, Lower Sioux Indian Community in the State of Minnesota, Prairie Island Indian Community in the State of Minnesota, Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa, Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska, and Sac and Fox Nation of Oklahoma.

Effigy Mounds National Monument, located in Harpers Ferry, Iowa, preserves more than 200 Late Woodland Period (300-1100 CE) mounds, including 31 effigy mounds in the shapes of birds and bears. The largest is the Great Bear Mound, which is 70 feet wide (from the shoulder to the bottom of the legs), 137 feet long, and 3.5 feet high. The site also includes a visitor center with exhibits displaying artifacts and natural specimens, and 14 miles of hiking trails (see below). Effigy Mounds National Monument was established in 1949 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.

Effigy Mounds National Monument

Fort Walton Mound is an archaeological site located in the city of Fort Walton Beach, Florida. It is possibly the largest mound on the Gulf Coast. Constructed circa 850 C.E., the large earthenwork mound is attributed to the Pensacola, a culture related to the Mississippian cultures that inhabited the central
 and southeastern parts of the United States. The mound is 12-feet in height and 233-feet in width. It is estimated 
that around 200,000 basket loads of dirt were used in its construction. 
It is possibly the largest mound on the Gulf Coast. The Pensacola natives were
 an advanced, hierarchical society. According to archaeologists, the mound was used for ceremonial and political purposes. The top of the mound would have served as the location of the chief's residence was located, as evidenced by the post holes; structures on the mound were probably constructed utilizing wattle and daub. This mound features a pyramidal base with a truncated top, typical of the architectural fashion of the period. It occupied a central position in the village and its supporting agricultural lands. Village leaders were buried in the mound, and additional layers of material added over time. The site was abandoned by 1500 C.E. and the mound was essentially forgotten until the Civil War. In 1861, Confederate soldiers established "Camp Walton" at the base of Fort 
Walton Mound to guard Santa Rosa Sound and 
Choctawhatchee Bay. The 
soldiers dug into the mound and had a tent in their camp to display the 
artifacts they found. Several formal excavations have taken place over 
the years, the last one occurring in 1976. The mound was&nbsp;placed on the 
National Register of Historical Places in 1966. It was declared a 
National Historic Landmark in 1964. Also part of the Fort Walton Beach Heritage Park &amp; Cultural Center is the adjacent city-owned and operated Indian Temple Mound Museum, which opened in 1972 at this location (it first opened in 1962 elsewhere). It houses exhibits that explore the 12,000 years of natural and human history of the area. Pre-Colombian artifacts from the mound (and other locations), European 
Explorers, local pirates and early settlers are on display at the museum.

The Fort Walton Mound is a Pensacola culture earthen mound thought to have been built circa 850 C.E. According to archaeologists, the mound was used for ceremonial purposes and as the chief's residence. The mound is 12-feet-tall and 233-feet-wide and is possibly the largest mound on the Gulf Coast. It is located on the grounds of the Indian Temple Mound Museum, which features exhibits that explore the 12,000 years of natural and human history of the area. 

Fort Walton Mound (Indian Temple Mound Museum)

The site's remoteness has protected it from looting and also more extensive research. It was first mapped in the&nbsp;1880s and later investigated by&nbsp;Alabama Museum of Natural History&nbsp;archaeologist David L. DeJarnette. The land on which the site is located was owned by the McMillan family, then a&nbsp;paper company, and then finally the State of Alabama.

Declared a National Historic Landmark in 1994, the Bottle Creek Indian Mounds is the second largest archaeological site in Alabama and on the Central Gulf Coast, consisting of 18 mounds (the largest one being 45 feet high). It is located several miles north of Mobile in a remote, swampy area in the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Given this inaccessibility, it is rarely visited and can only be reached by boat. It was inhabited by the Pensacola people—a variant of the Mississippian culture—between 1250-1550 C.E. The site was a significant social, economic, and religious center; its control of the rivers enabled it to control the trade networks in the surrounding region. Between 1991-1994, the University of Alabama conducted the first extensive excavation of the site. Among the archaeological remains they found were prehistoric and historic floors (the only ones found in the Central Gulf Coast region) and evidence of mound construction methods. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. 

Bottle Creek Indian Mounds

<div>Winterville Mounds The Winterville ceremonial center originally contained at least twenty-three mounds. Some of the mounds located outside the park boundaries have been leveled by highway construction and farming. Twelve of the site's largest mounds, including the 55-foot-high Temple Mound, are currently the focus of a long-range preservation plan being developed by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History and the University of Mississippi's Center for Archaeological Research. </div><div> </div><div>Archaeological evidence indicates that the Indians who used the Winterville Mounds may have had a civilization similar to that of the Natchez Indians, a Mississippi tribe documented by French explorers and settlers in the early 1700s. The Natchez Indians' society was divided into upper and lower ranks, with a person's social rank determined by heredity through the female line. The chief and other tribal officials inherited their positions as members of the royal family. The elaborate leadership network made mound building by a civilian labor force possible.</div><div> </div><div>A great fire during the late 1300s consumed the original building on the Temple Mound at Winterville. According to archaeological evidence, the cause of the fire remains a mystery. The site continued to be used afterwards, but no more mounds were built or maintained. Even though the site continued to be occupied after the fire, the general population declined at Winterville while increasing at settlements and mound sites 50 miles to the south, in the lower Yazoo River basin. By 1450 A.D. the Winterville Mound site appears to have been abandoned completely.</div><div> </div><div>Archaeological Investigations</div><div> </div><div>During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, relic collectors occasionally visited the site, although few artifacts were discovered. The National Park Service and Harvard University's Lower Mississippi Survey conducted the first modern archaeological studies at Winterville in the 1940s. Lower Mississippi Survey archaeologist Jeffrey P. Brain directed extensive excavations at Winterville in 1967. His final report, Winterville: Late Prehistoric Culture Contact in the Lower Mississippi Valley, was published in 1989 by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</div><div> </div><div>Preservation of the Site</div><div> </div><div>In 1939, the Greenville Garden Club led a community effort to purchase forty-two acres of the Winterville Mounds site and to convey the property to the City of Greenville. Supported by the Winterville Mounds Association, the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks (formerly the Mississippi Park Commission) operated Winterville as a state park from 1960 until 2000, when the property was conveyed to the Mississippi Department of Archives and History. In 1993, Winterville Mounds was designated a National Historic Landmark.</div><div> </div><div>Visiting the Site</div><div> </div><div>Winterville Mounds, an official state historic site listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is maintained by the Historic Properties Division of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</div><div> </div><div>It is located on Mississippi Highway 1, six miles north of the intersection of Highways 82 &amp; 1 in Greenville, Mississippi. The grounds are open daily from dawn to dusk. The museum is open from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Monday through Saturday and 1:30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. on Sunday. Admission is free. </div>

Winterville Mounds, named for a nearby community, is the site of a prehistoric ceremonial center built by a Native American civilization that thrived from about A.D. 1000 to 1450. The mounds, part of the Winterville society's religious system, were the site of sacred structures and ceremonies. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Winterville people lived away from the mound center on family farms in scattered settlement districts throughout the Yazoo-Mississippi River Delta basin. Only a few of the highest-ranking tribal officials lived at the mound center.

Winterville Mounds

The towering mound is estimated to have been built&nbsp;between 1250 and 1600 A.D. by prehistoric Native Americans, who were the ancestors of the Natchez Indians. The mound was built by hand by carrying and dumping dirt along the sides of a hill and then molding it into an artificial plateau. There were also numerous smaller mounds that surrounded the large mound, forming somewhat of a complex. Archeologists have determined that the purposes of the mound and its smaller mounds were&nbsp;twofold: they served as a burial site and ceremonial center. The Natchez Indians eventually left the mounds when they moved to the Grand Village, about 12 miles southwest, in the late 1600s,&nbsp;and the smaller mounds were destroyed by plowing and erosion.&nbsp; Emerald Mound was named after the Emerald Plantation that surrounded it in the 19th century. The land that the mound is located on was donated to the National Park Service in 1950 and now offers historical signs that tell the mound's story as well stairs that lead to beautiful views.

Built by Native Americans more than three and a half centuries ago and stretching over eight acres, Emerald Mound is the second largest in the nation. It is about 770 by 435 feet at the base and is 35 feet high. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and is maintained by the park service.

Emerald Mound

<h4>History of the Pinellas Point Temple Mound</h4>The builders of the mound are thought to be descendants of Mississippi Era Native Americans. The Mississippi Era occurred between A.D. 900 and A.D. 1500, and the Mississippians are named as such because they spread east from the Mississippi River, inhabiting many areas throughout the southeast. However, the tribes from this Era were spread among many different chiefdoms, although they did share common agricultural, ceremonial, and military cultures. The Native Americans who settled around the Tampa Bay area, and those who would eventually build the Pinellas Point Tocobaga Temple Mound, survived mostly on gathering shellfish and fishing.Mounds at this time were built for various reasons. The mound at Pinellas Point is thought to have been a tribe temple, and it was a place to store essential religious relics and served as the home for religious practitioners. Archaeological evidence also shows that, nearby, there was a chapel where the dead were prepared for burial. Other mounds in the area were also constructed to be the home of the tribe’s chief. Until nearly 2008, the Pinellas Point Tocobaga Temple Mound was decaying from mountain bike tracks, trash, and graffiti, among other issues. Since then, preservation projects were put into place by the Florida Archaeology Network and the University of South Florida.1<h4>The Legend of Princess Hirrihigua and Juan Ortiz</h4>One of the most endearing stories regarding the Pinellas Point Tocobaga Temple Mound is related to the relationship between Spanish explorer Juan Ortiz and Tocobaga Princess Hirrihigua (also known as Ucita). Before the arrival of Ortiz, the Tocobaga Native Americans and Spanish explorers had developed a worsening tension marred by violence. For example, when conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez landed near present-day St. Petersburg in 1528, Narvaez immediately proved himself to be an enemy of the Tocobaga by cutting off the nose of a chief named Hirrihigua and feeding one of the chief’s family members to the expedition’s war dogs. As such, the chief developed a deep hatred of the Spanish. Juan Ortiz was on a search party from Cuba to locate the ill-fated Narvaez, and when Ortiz’s ship arrived at Tampa Bay, Ortiz and three others were surrounded by warriors and taken captive. The three men were killed in the plaza of the Hirrihigua village, while the 18-year-old Ortiz was destined to be tied to a large grill and placed over hot coals, with the goal of being roasted alive. After a short period of being used as a slave, Juan Ortiz was tied to the grill with a lit flame beneath him. His screams filled the air, and several of the women rushed to his side to plea for his life. Among the women was the chief’s daughter, known in Florida tradition as Princess Hirrihigua. Ortiz was saved, but suffered severe burns and scars, which he carried for the rest of his life. Ortiz later went to live with another area chief, who in 1539 set Ortiz free when several Spanish ships arrived in the bay. The Spanish ships were from Hernando de Soto; De Soto would use Ortiz as an interpreter in Soto’s ill-fated expedition.2<h4>Inscription on the Mound’s Marker</h4>The Tocobaga were Native Americans who lived in villages around Tampa Bay dating to about A.D. 1000. They lived near the water's edge where they subsisted on a wide variety of fish, shellfish, wild game, and a variety of plants from upland areas. Spanish explorers described them as well-formed, muscular people with a high level of civilization. Based on linguistics, the Tocobaga-language shares characteristics with tribes such as the Creek, Chickasaw, and Seminole. The Tocobaga used many native plants for food and building materials. The sabal palm provided materials to make rope and roof thatch, and the heart of the palm is edible. The Tocobaga brewed their caffeinated "Black drink" from the yaupon holly. The Tocobaga created many tools to assist them in their everyday living. These included tools made from shells, pottery and spears and arrows. What were Tocobaga villages like? Tocobaaga villages were situated around a public area known as the plaza that was used as a meeting place. Central to the village were two or more mounds. One mound was often used for burials and the other was a temple mound, also called a platform mound. On top of the mounds would be one or more buildings. Spanish explorers indicated the more important villagers had their houses around the central public area and the less important villagers lived in huts farther from the plaza. Homes were constructed with poles that held up a thatched roof. How were the Mounds built? Mounds were built from dirt, sand, and shells. To get to the top of the mound, a ramp ran from the central public area of the village to the top of the mound. What is a Temple Mound? A Temple Mound was a place of worship by the Tocobaga. It was a place where important religious relics were stored and their religious practitioners may have lived. Nearby was a structure known as a chapel house, a place where the dead were prepared for burial. How are Indian Mounds relevant to us today? Indian Mounds provide a link to the past and give us an opportunity to imagine what things were like prior to modern society. Archaeological studies of these sites show us how people lived and how they survived. Mounds remind us that people lived on a much simpler scale-no roads, houses, televisions or air conditioning. For Native Americans, mound sites are spiritual places where they can talk, thank, or pray to the people who lie there. What happened to the Tocobaga Indians? Spanish explorers arrived in the Tampa Bay area in April 1528 bringing both disease and violence. These two factors, combined with political infighting among other Indian groups, contributed to the disappearance of this Native American tribe. Although some Tocobaga members relocated to the Apalachee and St. Marks River areas during the seventeenth century, the remaining Tocobaga in the Tampa Bay area were destroyed when colonial raiding parties swept through Florida destroying Spanish missions and the Indians beginning in 1704. Remnants of the Tocobaga people are said to have been incorporated into various Seminole bands in the 1700s.3

The Pinellas Point Temple Mound is an archaeological treasure surrounded by housing developments and modern streets in southern St. Petersburg. The Temple Mound is one of the only surviving remnants of a large Native American village active during the Mississippian Era (roughly A.D. 900. To A.D. 1500). Archaeologists believe that the Temple Mound was built around A.D. 1,000 and was occupied until the arrival of Spanish explorers on the Florida coast during the 1500s. Furthermore, significant evidence shows that the mound was built by Tocobaga tribes, who inhabited the area when Spanish explorers Panfilo de Narvaez and Hernando de Soto arrived. The Pinellas Point Temple Mound is thought to have been constructed from the shells of oysters and clams. In fact, the Safety Harbor area was celebrated among Tocabaga Native Americans for its vast marine ecosystem, and every year, Tocabaga Native Americans would gather by the hundreds to feast on oysters and clams. Among all the Tocabaga Mounds, the Pinellas Point Temple Mound is thought to be the best known. One of the most famous legends regarding the mound is the story between the Spanish explorer Juan Ortiz and the Tocabaga princess Hirrihigua (also called Ucita). The story of Hirrihigua and Ortiz is known as the Florida Pocahontas.

Pinellas Point Temple Mound

The city started to buy the land that is now the park in 1890 in order to protect what remained of the mounds. Excavations first took place in the 1850s. Some excavations were not done carefully—mounds were simply dug up—and unfortunately looting took place as well. Nonetheless, excavations revealed several types of including small bundle burials, log tombs, put burials, and simple burials. A few contained a variety of death offerings such as projectile points, copper ornaments, and bear teeth.

Established in the late 1800s, this 17-acre park features six ancient burial mounds, the earliest of which date back between 1,500-2,000 years ago. These early mounds were created by the people of the Hopewell culture. As such, this site is the only distinctly Hopewell site in the state, and one of northernmost examples of this culture in the country. For centuries, Native Americans buried their dead here, including the Dakota peoples. The mounds rest on limestone rock that is 450 million years old. Originally there were at least 16 mounds at this location and 19 more nearby above what is now Carver's Cave but these have been lost to development over the years. The site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014.

Indian Mounds Regional Park

Mississippian Culture

The Mississippian Period refers to the time period around
1000-1550 A.D., when millions of people belonging to at least sixty independent
American Indian tribes from the Midwest and Southeast were loosely united by
trade, religious and political systems, cultural practices, and a common
iconographic writing system [1; 3; 4]. The Mississippians were
horticulturalists and shared the practice of mound-building, not only for burials,
but also as building platforms. Mississippian Culture (also called the
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex) stretched from Oklahoma and Texas to Ohio and
from Minnesota to northern Florida. There were four regional mound centers at
Cahokia in Illinois, Moundville in Alabama, Etowah in Georgia, and Spiro in
Oklahoma. The southwestern Mississippian Culture is referred to as Caddo
Mississippian, though there is ongoing debate as to whether or not the earlier
culture is tied to the present-day Caddo-speaking tribes of Oklahoma [1; 3; 6].&nbsp;

Spiro, from Seasonal Camp
to Ceremonial Center

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Spiro Mound land
was used as a seasonal campsite as many as 8,000 years ago, developing into a
small farming village around 800 A.D. and growing into a large city and
important ceremonial center over the next few centuries. Each of the twelve
mounds on the site are built up of layers of earth which was carried basket by
basket. Nine of the mounds were constructed as house platforms for Spiro's
leaders, two were platforms for temples, and one (known as Craig Mound) was for
elite burials. Around 1300, the bulk of the population moved to surrounding
areas, leaving the Spiro Mounds as a primarily ceremonial and mortuary site
until 1450, when its importance in the region declined for unknown reasons.
Only a small population remained at Spiro until it was abandoned altogether
around 1600 [1; 2; 4; 6].



In the nineteenth century, the area was home to Choctaw
farmers who left the mounds undisturbed. From 1933-1935, the burial mound
(Craig Mound) was looted by commercial diggers, resulting in the destruction of
a third of the structure itself and the sale of thousands of unstudied artifacts
to collectors. Fortunately, as the site's importance became evident based on
the number of artifacts, their sophistication, and the quality of their
preservation (even fabric and basketweave were recovered), the state of
Oklahoma placed the Spiro Mounds under protection, and the commercial looting
was stopped. The following year, in 1936, the University of Oklahoma began
academic archaeological excavation of the site, employing WPA workers for the digging
[1; 2; 4]. What remained of Craig Mound held over 600 burials, and the site overall
contained trade goods from the East, West, and Gulf coasts, as well as the
Great Lakes [6]. The Spiro Mounds have yielded the largest collection of sacred
objects in North America deposited at a single site [5]. The wealth of Spiro is
attributed to its position on the Arkansas River, as a trade hub for the
Mississippian Culture to the east and the Great Plains to the west. Most of the
non-local goods at Spiro come from Mississippian locations including Cahokia in
Illinois, the Appalachian Mountains, and the Gulf Coast. It is speculated that
the people of Spiro traded perishable items such as bison meat and hides, bows,
and bow wood in exchange [6].&nbsp;

Precisely who the people of Spiro might have been is a
subject of academic debate. The most widely accepted theory is that Spiro's residents
were speakers of the Caddoan language, ancestors of today's Wichita, Kitsai, or
Caddo peoples [4]. The Caddo Homeland to the north of the Arkansas Basin (where
the Spiro Mounds are located) appear to have had distinct cultures from 800-1600
A.D. There are, however, many cultural similarities, and the Caddo people
showed significant diversity from one local area to another. To blur the lines
further, the peoples of both areas traded peacefully with one another for over
800 years, with evidence suggesting cultural exchanges as well as goods [6].



The Spiro Mounds Archaeological
Center opened in 1978, owned and operated by the Oklahoma Historical Society
[1]. Since 2011, the Spiro Landscape Archaeological Project has been
investigating the site using non-invasive technologies such as ground
penetrating radar and electrical resistance to identify new archaeological
features on the site. This research has revealed the presence of rows of temporary
shelters erected for visitors attending ceremonies held at Craig Mound [5].

The 150-acre Spiro Mounds Archaeological Center includes an interpretive center and trail system connecting the twelve mounds on the site. The mounds were part of a ceremonial complex created between 600 and 1450 C.E. It became part of the larger Mississippian Culture, with trade networks and cultural influences spanning from California to the East Coast. Offering tours led by professional archaeologists, rotating exhibits, and nature and cultural trails, it is the only American Indian archaeological site in the state of Oklahoma which is open to the public [2; 4].

Spiro Mounds Archaeological Center

Not to be confused with the Indian mounds on the LSU campus, this mound has beed dated to around 1,000 AD during the Cole Creek culture period. The mound probably had sacred buildings on it and/or a platform from which the chief would address his people. A village likely surrounded the mound. During the 1800s, the mound was used as an officer cemetery for the nearby Baton Rouge Post and Arsenal. Just a few feet from the marker is another historical site  commemorating the 1779 Battle of Baton Rouge, the only battle during the American Revolutionary War fought outside of the colonies. 

Historical Marker: Ceremonial Indian Mound

On the Louisiana State University campus are two relatively large Indian mounds whose construction has been dated to around 6,000 years ago. These findings place the mounds among the oldest mounds in North America. Archaeological evidence indicates that the mound was built continuously versus in stages, which suggests that the ancient peoples came here to celebrate seasonal rituals and dumped earth as part of these ceremonies. No human remains have been found. In fact the only artifacts found are a few small pebbles used as tools. Currently, the mounds are in need of preservation, as they have suffered from erosion from people who walk on them before football games.

LSU Indian Mounds

Spirit Mound holds significance as one of the few remaining locations in the Upper Missouri River area where members of the Lewis and Clark expedition—including both leaders—are known to have visited. Most of the locations the expedition visited are under water in Lewis and Clark Lake. Lewis and Clark heard about the mound from a band of Sioux Indians, who said it was a place where "little devils" with big heads lived. Upon arrival, the explorers only found animals and insects, but the view was very nice. No archaeological evidence has been found on the mound. There is an ongoing project to restore the mound to its natural prairie setting. Settlers began to arrive in the area in the late 1860s and the mound was part of cattle grazing and farmland. It wasn't until 1986 that a group formed to protect the mound. However it took until 2001 for the state to purchase the property and thereby designating it as a state park. There is a path that leads to the top of the mound. Visitors can park in a small lot on the southeast corner of the park.

Spirit Mound

The Caddo Indians settled this area in about A.D. 800 and stayed for around five centuries, conducting economic and social business throughout the region with other native groups from places "as far as present-day Illinois and Florida." The Caddo Indians built this village lest than thirty miles away from the current location of Nacogdoches due to the perfect soil there, a center point for Great Mountain Builder Culture in the surrounding area. There remain three mounds present at the site today.Archeologists have found no evidence of war at the site, so it is thought that the Caddo left the area due to "the loss of their regional influence as outlying hamlets and trade groups became self-sufficient and grew less dependent on the cultural center in religious and political matters" according to the Texas Historical Commission. The site became abandoned in the 13th century, but the cultural impact of the Caddo lingered on.Up until the 1830s, the Hasinai Caddo groups resided in East Texas, but in the early 1840s, the Caddo, forced out by Anglo-Americans, relocated to the Brazos River area. Eventually, the national government placed the remaining Caddo tribes on the Brazos Indian Reservation in 1855 and then the Washita River in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in 1859. The Caddo still exist and live in the Caddo Nation Headquarters near Binger, Oklahoma.

Caddo Mounds State Historic Site is a prehistoric village and ceremonial center located on the original El Camino Real de Los Tejas trail, dating before European exploration. The museum exhibits approximately 200 artifacts dating from A.D. 750–A.D. 1400, including pottery, tools, and weapons. Visitors can walk the 0.7-mile self-guided interpretive trail to see the Caddo’s burial, low temple, and ceremonial mounds. An additional trail along the El Camino Real is also available. 

Caddo Mounds State Historic Site

The park was privately owned beginning in 1930 to protect it. The owner sold it to the Minnesota Historical Society in 1971, which built a visitor center and&nbsp;opened&nbsp;the park in&nbsp;1975. Concerns of Native Americans that the mounds should not be open to tourists, because they considered the mounds sacred burial grounds, prompted the park's closure in 2007. However, beginning in early 2015, this thinking&nbsp;had begun to change. Interest increased among all parties, including the Native Americans, that the history of the site and the ancient peoples who lived there should be&nbsp;told once again. Plans to reopen the site range from simple trails with interpretive panels to opening a the visitor center.

As the name indicates, Grand Mound State Park contains the largest remaining prehistoric Indian mound in the upper Midwest. It is estimated to have been built in 200 B.C. and later occupied by Middle and Late Woodland peoples. It was declared a National Historic Landmark and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The mound was recently deemed to be an effigy mound in the shape of a muskrat. It is 140 feet wide, 100 feet wide, and 25 feet high. There are also four smaller, mounds at the site. The site is currently closed as of early 2016 but it appears that it might open in the coming years. 

Mounds of the Woodland Indians

Santee Indian Mound and Fort Watson

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information